11. llll 




Class _^iJi 



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Book 






Copight]^!'. 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



MAN: 



AN INTRODUCTION TO ANTHROPOLOGY. 



BY 

W. E. ROTZELL, B. S., M. D, 

I^ecturer on Botany and Zoology in the Hahnemann Medical College of 
Philadelphia; Kditor of the Atlantic Slope Naturalist ; Member of The 
American Society of Naturalists ; The American Association 
for the Advancement of Science ; The American Anthro- 
pological Association , International Congress 
of Americanists, etc. 



SECOND EDITION 



PHILADELPHIA: 

JOHN JOS. McVKY. 
1905. 



(Sf/^4 



UBRAf?Y of QOmmsS 
Two Copies rteceive^ 

^AN 23 1905 

i^U^SS ct^- AAc. Noi 
COPY B. 

— .«J 



Copyright, 1905, 

BY 

W. E. ROTZELL. 



PREFACE. 



npHE first edition of this book, published in 1900, 
^ has been out of print for some time. In this 
edition the same general plan has been followed; 
and, while there have been but few changes made, 
there are a number of additions. A new chapter 
has been added on *'The Development of Culture'' 
in which some of the views presented, I think, can 
not be found elsewhere. 

There are many excellent works written on zool- 
ogy, treating of the various phases of animal life, 
some of them ending with, and others including, 
man ; but, beyond mentioning the different races of 
mankind, the majority of them have very little to 
say relative to the human species ; and, on the other 
hand, the many different books, so far as I know, 
written in the English language, treating of man- 
kind, start out with the consideration of man as 
man, and make little or no reference to the zoologi- 
cal aspect of the subject, z. e,, the zoology of man. 
There seems to be a break in our literature on this 

(3) 



4 PREFACE. 

subject in these two departments of knowledge, 
which in this work I have attempted to an extent 
to fill, although, I fully recognize, in a very brief 
and necessarily superficial manner in a volume of 
this size. 

The importance of classification is recognized by 
all students of science, although unfortunately there 
is much difference of opinion relative to what 
characters should constitute the criteria for classi- 
fication. The zoological arrangement of the sub- 
kingdoms in this book is that adopted by Prof. 
Alexander Macalister, of the University of Dublin ; 
while in the arrangement of the orders of the mam- 
malia the method of the late Prof. H. Alleyne 
Nicholson, of the University of Toronto, with slight 
modification, has been followed. 

Anthropology seems to be, unfortunately, one of 
those subjects about which the vast majority of 
persons know very little. This is exceedingly un- 
fortunate, and, owing to the fact that it has for its 
consideration our own kind, should not be so. Many 
individuals would be ashamed to acknowledge they 
were not acquainted with the date of some partic- 
ular war or event in recent history, but would 
acknowledge without a blush, they had never heard 
of their probable ancestral types, as represented by 
the Neanderthal skull and the man and woman of 



PREFACE. 5 

Spy. Therefore, until anthropological knowledge 
is more general than at present, too much cannot 
be written on the subject, so long as truth and 
accuracy are maintained. 

In a volume of this character, treating of such a 
broad field of knowledge as that of general anthro- 
pology, it is not possible for any one writer, no 
matter how intimate he may be with the subject 
involved, to assume absolute responsibility for all 
statements made; and, therefore, the many refer- 
ences to the names and investigations of other 
workers in the same domain are not only advisable 
but, to an extent, necessary, as they furnish the 
reader with the names of those authors whose 
writings may almost be considered to have created 
the science of anthropology, and to which atten- 
tion should be given. 

The endeavor has been made to start at the be- 
ginning of the long chain of evolutionary devel- 
opment in the life-history of the earth, and, by 
gradual stages of differentiation, reach man, and 
finally give some consideration to the different races 
of man. 

The classification of mankind herein adopted is 
the old one based upon color, which, owing to its 
general acceptance, its ease of comprehension, and 
the uniformity of the geographical relation of the 



6 PREFACE. 

races, is the most suitable in a work of this char- 
acter. It will be noted that, apparently, the rule 
of from the lower to the higher has been departed 
from in the instance of the Red race in placing it 
between the Yellow and White races. The reason 
for doing this is that the affinity between the Yellow 
and Red races seems to be so close that we must 
consider the latter race to be dependent upon the 
former for its origin, and hence this arrangement. 
It might possibly have been well to have considered 
them as constituting a single race. 

In the sub-title of this work the word Anthro- 
pology is used in its most comprehensive and 
broadest sense, although much herein included be- 
longs to that special field of anthropology termed 
Ethnology, which has for its consideration the rela- 
tions of the different varieties of mankind to each 
other (Latham, Keane). The science of Ethnog- 
raphy, which is descriptive of individuals irrespec- 
tive of their relationship to other peoples, is also 
necessarily touched upon. These terms are here 
mentioned for the reason that confusion continu- 
ally occurs owing to the incorrect usage of them. 

Many authorities have been consulted in the prep- 
aration of this work ; but especial obligation should 
be acknowledged to the Ethnology by Prof. A. H. 
Keane, The Earth and Its Inhabitants by Elisee 



PREFACE. 7 

Reclus, The Races of Ma7i by Oscar Peschel, and 
many of the writings of the late Dr. Daniel G. 
Brinton. Acknowledgment should also be made to 
Prof. William Z. Ripley, of Columbia University, 
for certain suggestions of value which he very 
kindly made. 

W. E. ROTZELL. 

Narberth, Pa., December 21st, 1904, 



CONTENTS. 



PAttS 

CHAPTER I. 

THE earth's life-history AND THE POSITION OF MAN. 

Matter and force. Inorganic and organic matter. Proto- 
plasm. The Cell. Vegetable and animal forms. Classi- 
fication. The sub-kingdoms of the animal kingdom. 
Characteristics of the vertebrata. Characteristics of the 
mammalia. The order of the primates. The family Hom- 
inidae. The genus homo and the species sapiens. An- 
thropology. Special creation. Evolution. The nebular 
hypothesis. The modification of the earth and the geo- 
logical stratifications. The age of the earth. The place 
and time of the origin of man. **Lemuria." Archaeo- 
logical finds bearing on the antiquity of man, from the 
valley of the Somme, the cave of Aurignac, and the 
Kitchenmiddens. Tertiary man. The Neanderthal skull. 
The man and woman of Spy. The Naulette jaw. The 
Pithecanthropus erectus. Living man. The skull. The 
face. The orbital index. The facial angle. The maxillary 
angle. The teeth. The pelvis. The limbs. The hair. 
The color of the skin. The living races of man I3--66 

CHAPTER II. 

the black (AFRICAN) RACE. 

The characteristics of the race. Color of the skin. The 
hair. The skull. The jaws. The cheek bones. The 
nasal index. Stature. The branches of the race. The 
Negrillos. The Pigmies, their distribution and character- 
istics. The Akkas, the Wochua, the Andamanese, and the 
Batwa. The Hottentots, their distribution and character- 
istics. The Bushmen, their distribution and character- 
istics. The True Negroes. The Soudanese and their 

(9) 



10 CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

distribution. The Wolofs, the Serers, the Baniuns, the 
Mandingoes, and others. The Bantuas, their character- 
istics and distribution. The Zulus and the Kaffirs. The 
ability of the Negro. Slavery. Status of the race in 
America 67^4 

CHAPTER HI. 

THE YELLOW (ASIAN ) RACE. 

The physical characteristics of the race. The original 
home of the race and its distribution. The Sinitic and 
Sibiric branches. The Chinese, their culture, their lan- 
guage and their religion. The Thibetans. The Indo- 
Chinese or the Thibeto-Indo-Chinese. The Tunguses. 
The Kalmucks. The Tartars. The Turks. The Finns. 
The Lapps, or Laplanders. The Chukchis. The Na- 
mollos. The Kamschatkans. The Giliaks. The Aleu- 
tians. The Ainos. The Japanese, their physical char- 
acteristics, their origin and their culture. 85-102 

CHAPTER IV. 

THE RED (AMERICAN) RACE. 

The characteristics and origin of the race. The Glacial 
Period in America and its bearing on the antiquity of 
man. The physical uniformity of the American Indians, 
their mental endowments, their culture and their lan- 
guages. The Eskimos. The Algonkins. The Crees. 
The Chipeways. The Blackfeet. The Lenapes. The 
Iroquois. The Cayugas, the Senegas, the Onondagons, 
the Oneidas and the Mohawks. The Dakotas or Sioux. 
The Muskhogeans, the Choctaws, the Creeks and the 
Seminoles. The Caddoes. The Pawnees. The Yumas. 
The Pueblos. The ** Mound Builders.'' The Sonora. 
The Nahuas or Aztecs and their civilization. The 
Toltecs. The Otomis. The Totonacos. The Zapotecs. 
The Mixtecks. The Mayas and their civilization. The 
Caribs. The Arawaks. The Tulpis, the Ges, the Crans, 
the Botocudos, the Coroados, the Puris and the Malalis. 
The Qquichuas or Incas. The Patagonians. The Fue- 
gians 103-127 



CONTENTS. li 

PAGE 

CHAPTER V. 

THE WHITE (EUROPEAN) RACE. 

The physical characteristics of the races. The race in the 
region of the Mediterranean Sea. The South Mediter- 
ranean branch. The Hamites. The Berbers. The 
Libyans. The Moors. The Numidians. TheGuanches. 
The Rifians. The Egyptians and their culture. The 
East Africans. The Bedjas. The Daakals, or Afars. 
The Gallas. The Somalis. The Massi. The Semites. 
The Arabs. The Abyssinians. The Armenians. The 
Syrians. The Assyrians. The Babylonians. The Jews. 
The North Mediterranean branch. The Basques. The 
Aryans and their origin. The Umbrians. The Sam- 
nites. The Latins, or Romans. The Celts. The 
Highland Scotch. The Irish. The Manx. The Welsh. 
The Teutons. The Goths. The Vandals. The Angles 
and Saxons. The Danes. The Norsemen. The 
Franks. The Lombards. The Swedes. The Norwe- 
gians. The Icelanders. The Germans. The Slavs. 
The Huns. The Russians. The Ruthenians. The 
Poles. The Czechs. The Bulgarians. The Wends, or 
Sorbs. The Letts. The Albanians. The Illyrians. 
The Armenians. The Bakrrians. The Persians. The 
Caucasic peoples, their language and their tribes .... 128-143 

CHAPTER VI. 

THE INSULAR PEOPLES. 

The Malays. The Hovas. The Polynesians. The Maoris. 
The Tongas. The Tahitians. The Pomotonans. The 
Marquesans. Inhabitants of the Philippine Islands. 
The Tagalas. The Bisayas. The Ilocanes. The Pam- 
pangos. The Igorrotes. The Tingianes. The Apayos. 
The Bogobos. The Samals. The Andamanese. The 
Papuans. The Fijians. The Melanesians. Australia 
and the Austialians. The Tasmanians 144-157 



12 CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER VII. 

THE DEVELOPMENT OF CULTURE. 

The early condition of man, physically and mentally. His 
necessities. Origin of culture. Implements and wea- 
pons, paleolithic and neolithic. Food. Fire. Lan- 
guage. Writing. Environment 158-182 



man: 

AN INTRODUCTION TO ANTHROPOLOGY. 



CHAPTER L 

THE earth's life-history AND THE POSITION OF 

MAN. 

Contents. — Matter and force. Inorganic and organic matter. 
Protoplasm. The Cell. Vegetable and animal forms. Classi- 
fication. The sub-kingdoms of the animal kingdom. Char- 
acteristics of the vertebrata. Characteristics of the mammalia. 
The order of the primates. The family Hominidse. The genus 
homo, and the species sapiens. Anthropology. Special crea- 
tion. Evolution. The nebular hypothesis. The modification 
of the earth and the geological stratifications. The age of the 
earth. The place and time of the origin of man. **Lemuria.*' 
Archaeological finds bearing on the antiquity of man, from the 
valley of the Somme, the cave of Aurignac, and the Kitchen- 
middens. Tertiary man. The Neanderthal skull. The man 
and woman of Spy. The Naulette jaw. The Pithecanthropus 
erectus. Living man. The skull. The face. The orbital 
index. The facial angle. The maxillary angle. The teeth. 
The pelvis. The limbs. The hair. The color of the skin. 
The living races of man. 

EVERYTHING in the universe is composed of 
matter, associated with which is force or 
energy. Matter, on the one hand, so far as we 
know, cannot exist without force, and, on the other 
hand, force cannot exist without being identified 
with matter. By matter we understand to be com- 
prised all substances that occupy space and that are 

13 



14 MATTER AND FORCE. 

appreciable to our senses; and by force we mean 
that power which produces or increases those 
motions and changes which occur in material sub- 
stances. 

Matter and force are coexistent and imperishable, 
and it is inconceivable to the human mind that one 
can exist without the other. "Force and matter," 
says Biichner, ''are fundamentally the same thing, 
contemplated from different standpoints. In the 
material world we know of no example of a particle 
of matter not endowed with force or working by it." 

This seems to have been recognized long ago by 
John Hunter, for in his '* Introduction to Natural 
History" he says: ''Matter being endowed with 
properties which become the cause of our sensa- 
tions, and the modes of action of these properties 
being hardly known, these properties become the 
foundation of the idea of spirit, viz., a species of 
intelligent quality that presides over and directs the 
actions of matter. But, as causes and effects of 
matter seem to be entirely connected with matter 
itself, and to be a property inherent in and insep- 
arable from it, and as these are becoming better 
known, the ' presiding spirits ' are every day vanish- 
ing, and their authority becoming less." Hunter, 
however, in this instance in his reference to "spirit" 
does not show his usual versatile blunt logic, for, 
the factor which underlies the idea of spirit more 
than any other is consciousness, which cannot be 
explained on materialistic grounds. 

Matter exists or manifests itself in three different 
states or conditions, the solid, the liquid and the 



THE CELL. 15 

gaseous. It may be changed from the one to the 
other of these conditions, but it cannot be destroyed 
or annihilated. Its form may be changed, but not 
one atom can be destroyed. 

Matter is subdivided into inorganic and organic 
matter. By inorganic matter we understand those 
substances that are unorganized, i. ^., do not possess 
organs or structures for the performance of any 
physiological function. Inorganic substances are 
devoid of life, and in the form of inorganic sub- 
stances never did possess life, and, of course, never 
v^ill. Chemically, unorganized substances are com- 
posed of many different elements, and are made up 
of a large number of homogeneous parts, v^hich 
have no definite relationship to each other. Inor- 
ganic substances have no definite form, and are said 
to be ''amorphous," or they may be "crystalline" 
when they are bounded by plane surfaces and 
straight lines. Inorganic substances do not grow, 
in the true meaning of the word, but may increase 
in size by ''accretion" or additions to the outside. 

All organic bodies are composed fundamentally 
of structures which are denominated to be cells. 
These cells are mostly microscopic in size and were 
first discovered in plants by Mathias Schleider in 
the year 1838, and shortly afterwards Theodor 
Schwann showed that the same structures were the 
basic elements of the animal body. 

A cell is composed of protoplasm which consists 
mainly of protein which is composed chemically of 
the elements of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitro- 
gen; sometimes sulphur is present, and associated 



l6 ORGANIC MATTER. 

with these is a considerable proportion of water. 
Surrounding this protoplasm of the cell there is 
usually a portion thereof which is termed the cell 
wall, and there is usually a well-defined structure in 
the center which is called the nucleus. 

The tendency of all cells is to assume the spheri- 
cal in shape, but this is variously modified by pres- 
sure. Many of the lower plants and animals con- 
sist of but a single cell, which cell in its own en- 
vironment is competent to perform and does per- 
form all of the necessary functions of life. In the 
higher plants and animals there is a unity which re- 
sults from the fusion of the two-sex cells, and by 
continued division growth is accomplished. The 
study of cell-structure and formation since the dis- 
covery of cells was made, has added much to our 
knowledge of life and has also been of great practi- 
cal value to mankind, for upon the cellular theory 
is founded our knowledge of cellular pathology. 

Organic bodies possess organs or structures for 
the performance of the physiological functions of 
life. In the lowest types of organic life distinct or- 
gans do not exist, but, nevertheless, the different 
physiological functions are performed. Organized 
bodies are fundamentally composed of a few chemi- 
cal elements into quite complex combinations. 
They are composed of heterogeneous parts, among 
which there is always more or less definite relation- 
ship. These forms are always of a definite shape, 
the surfaces of the body being bounded by curved 
lines, either convex or concave. Organic substances 
grow, in the true meaning of the word ; that is, they 
increase in size by the intussusception of matter. 



ORGANIC MATTER. 1 7 

Organic bodies are divided into plants and ani- 
mals. In the case of the higher vegetable and ani- 
mal forms, when a comparison is made the differ- 
ences are quite obvious. As an illustration, con- 
sider the deer that is browsing on the grass ; one 
would at first thought consider resemblances be- 
tween the two to be out of the question. Many 
points of difference may easily be noted ; the animal 
has a nervous system, a vertebral column, a gastro- 
intestinal tract, and the power of locomotion, as 
well as many other faculties that the plant is entirely 
without. All of these differences, however, gradu- 
ally fade away as we trace the probable ancestral 
lines of the two down to the primitive forms of life, 
and then make the comparison. In the case of the 
lowest forms of organisms the absolute differentia- 
tion of plant and animal is an impossibility, and 
hence Prof. Haeckel has proposed an intermediate 
kingdom which he calls the Regjtum protisticum, in 
which to place these doubtful forms. The study of 
life in general is comprised in the science of Biology, 
which includes Botany, which treats of the vegetable 
world, and Zoology, v/hich has for its consideration 
the animal kingdom. 

Animxals may be studied primarily from two dif- 
ferent standpoints, the morphological and the phy- 
siological. Morphology treats of the structures 
which constitute the internal form of the animal ; 
and Physiology, which relates to the different func- 
tions performed by the various parts of the animal. 
All animals perform the functions of relation, nutri- 
tion and reproduction, and all pass through the 

2 



1 8 CLASSIFICATION. 

different stages of waste and repair. In the first 
stage, repair is* in excess of waste ; when the second 
stage is reached, waste and repair are equal ; and, 
lastly, the third stage is when waste exceeds repair, 
the assimilated material being insufficient to keep 
up the processes of life, and hence the death of the 
individual is the result. 

The variety and number of living animal forms 
are so great that in order to study them and appre- 
ciate the results of such study, some system is neces- 
sary ; and in order that we may accomplish this we 
have these diverse phases of animal life divided into 
a number of groups, according as they bear more 
or less resemblance to one another. The arrange- 
ment of these groups constitutes classification. 

The animal kingdom is divided into eight great 
plans of structure, and the divisions thus formed 
are designated ''sub-kingdoms.'' In these, from the 
lower to the higher, we find a progressive increase 
in complexity, from one end of the series to the 
other; this series, however, does not constitute a 
linear one, as the highest organism of each is never 
directly related to the lowest organism of the next 
higher sub-kingdom. It is usually more highly de- 
veloped and specialized, and so it can be seen that 
the sub-kingdoms overlap, as it were, one another. 

The sub-kingdoms are divided into classes ; the 
classes into orders ; the orders into families ; the 
families into genera, and the genera into species, 
the species constituting the zoological unit upon 
which all divisions are made. 

Of these eight sub-kingdoms the lowest, and 



ANIMAL SUB-KINGDOMS. IQ 

hence the first to be considered, is the Protozoa. As 
the name implies, this group includes the most lowly 
organized forms of the entire animal series. Some 
of these animals consist of undifferentiated proto- 
plasm, and are of extreme simplicity. They do not 
possess a body cavity, nor are any traces of a ner- 
vous system to be found. As a rule the Protozoa 
are aquatic in their habits and microscopic in size, 
although they sometimes form colonies. The sim- 
plest of all known animal forms, called Monera, 
belong to this sub-kingdom. ''The entire body of 
one of these Monera,'' says Haeckel, " during life is 
nothing more than a shapeless, mobile little lump 
of mucus or slime, consisting of an albuminous 
combination of carbon. We assume that this homo- 
geneous mass has a very complicated and fine mole- 
cular structure; however, this has not been proven 
either anatomically or with the aid of the micro- 
scope. Simpler or more imperfect organisms we 
cannot possibly conceive." Important classes in this 
sub-kingdom are the Rhizopoda, the Gregarinidae 
and the Infusoria. 

Sub-kingdom 2. Polystomata, includes an interest- 
ing series of forms, the sponges, which some observ- 
ers still consider to be of vegetable nature. The 
sponges have an internal body cavity, with a wall 
composed of three primary layers. In most of these 
forms there is one outlet and many inlets, but, while 
consisting of many cells, there are no dififerentiated 
organs. 

Sub-kingdom 3. Ccelenterata, includes those ani- 
mals whose alimentary canal communicates freely 



20 ANIMAL SUB-KINGDOMS. 

with the general cavity of the body. The body is 
composed of two layers — an outer, called the ecto- 
derm, and an inner, called the endoderm. In the 
majority of the coelenterata there are no traces of a 
nervous system. The jelly-fishes and sea-anemones 
are members of this sub-kingdom. Both of these 
forms possess a radiate symmetry. 

Sub-kingdom 4. Echtnodermata, includes the sea- 
urchins, the star-fishes and the sea-cucumbers. In 
the larval condition there are traces of a bilateral 
symmetry, but in the adult they show a radiating 
symmetry. An internal body cavity is always pres- 
ent. There is a nervous system arranged in the 
form of a ring around the mouth, from which nerve 
filaments pass to different portions of the animal. 
Some of the echinoderms show certain pigment 
spots, which have been supposed to be simple eyes. 
Calcareous matter is deposited in the skin, giving it 
a hard consistency. There is also a system of water 
tubes, the '* ambulacral system," by which locomo- 
tion is greatly facilitated. 

Sub-kingdom 5. Vermes, includes the worms, the 
internal structure of which is quite variable, bilateral 
symmetry being the most general character. There 
is a nervous system present in most forms. All 
worms possess a water-vascular system. A number 
of these forms are parasitic, living within the bodies 
of higher animals. The lower forms are not seg- 
mented, but the higher ones, the annelids, consist 
of a series of homologous segments. 

Sub-kingdom 6. Mollusca, includes those soft- 
bodied animals possessing a leathery mantle or shell, 



ANIMAL SUB-KINGDOMS. 21 

composed of carbonate of lime, which serves as a 
protection to the animal. The oysters, the whelks, 
the snails and the cuttle-fishes belong to this divi- 
sion. Many of the lower mollusca form colonies by 
continuous gemmation, but the higher forms are all 
simple animals. 

Sub-kingdom 7. Arthropoda, includes those ani- 
mals which have bodies composed of successive 
segments or joints, and which are covered by a 
hard external layer composed of chitin, and known 
as the exoskeleton. The arthropods are bilaterally 
symmetrical. The forms included in this sub-king- 
dom are the crabs, the lobsters, the spiders and the 
insects. 

Sub-kingdom 8. Vertebrata. The animals in- 
cluded in this sub-kingdom are the fishes, the am- 
phibians, the reptiles, the birds and the mammals. 

All vertebrated animals possess at some period of 
their existence a cartilaginous structure running 
along the dorsal region of the body, called the *'no- 
tochord " or '' chorda dorsalis." In some forms the 
notochord is persistent throughout life, but in the 
majority of cases it is replaced by the vertebral 
column or backbone. 

On cross-section, the body of a vertebrated animal 
may be considered to resemble two tubes, the smaller 
being above and the larger beneath. Between these 
tubes we find the notochord. The smaller tube 
contains the cerebro-spinal nervous system, and the 
larger tube contains the alimentary canal, the or- 
gans of circulation, etc., and also portions of the 
nervous system known as the ''ganglionic" or 



32 THE VERTEBRATA. 

''sympathetic" system. In the invertebrated ani- 
mals the body consists of but a single tube, and this 
includes all of the viscera. The main portions of 
the nervous system in the vertebrated animal are 
situated in the dorsal region. The vertebrata are 
bilaterally symmetrical. The segmented arrange- 
ment of many of the invertebrates is present to a 
certain extent, as is seen by the examination of their 
bones, and as may be more clearly recognized in 
their embryology. This segmentation is, however, 
greatly obscured in the adult by the arrangement of 
the soft tissues. 

The limbs are never more than four in number 
and are arranged in pairs ; they are in some in- 
stances altogether wanting or but partially de- 
veloped ; but never more than two pairs are present. 
These limbs are variously modified, as the paired 
fins of fishes, the wings and legs of birds, the fore 
and hind legs of quadrupeds, or the arms and the 
legs of man; all of these are but modifications of 
the one type, which modifications are generally re- 
cognized to have been the result of the effect of 
the environment under which these different animals 
have existed, and of the different functions that have 
been performed. 

All vertebrates possess a specialized circulatory 
system, and in all except one — the Amphioxus lan- 
ceolatus — there is a heart, which consists of either 
two, three or four chambers. The hepatic portal 
system is a peculiar modification of the venous sys- 
tem of bloodvessels which is found in all of the 
vertebrates. The lacteal system, which is considered 



THE VERTEBRATA. 23 

to be an appendage of the venous system, which 
takes up and elaborates the products of digestion 
and finally empties the contents into the veins, is 
also present. 

All vertebrated animals have a mouth, and in the 
majority of instances teeth are present ; an oesopha- 
gus is also found, and in some cases a crop (inglu- 
vies) and fore-stomach (proventriculus); next come 
the stomach, intestines, cloaca and vent. xA^ppended 
to the alimentary canal are a number of glands, 
which act upon the food and prepare it for assimi- 
lation. The saHvary glands secrete the saliva ; the 
gastric juice is secreted in the stomach ; the liver 
secretes the bile ; the pancreas secretes the pancre- 
atic juice, and in the mucous membrane of the in- 
testine are found certain glands which secrete 
intestinal juice. 

Respiration is accomplished in fishes and larval 
amphibians by means of gills, but the adult amphi- 
bians and other land vertebrates breathe by means 
of special cellular sacs, called lungs. 

In all of the vertebrates reproduction is accom- 
plished by means of the sexes, and in no instances 
do we find the two sexes in a single individual. 
Among the vertebrates no animal possesses the 
power of reproducing itself by fission or gemmation. 

The so-called special senses of sight, hearing, 
smell, taste and touch are probably always present 
among vertebrates, although the degree to which 
these senses are developed may vary considerably. 

In the vertebrata we find that the skeleton may 
be considered as consisting on the one hand of those 



24 THE VERTEBRATA. 

bones which go to form the head and trunk, and 
thus forming a sort of axis, and hence known as 
the axil skeleton ; and, on the other hand, of those 
bones wdiich form the support for the Hmbs or ap- 
pendages, and hence called the appendicular skele- 
ton. The head and trunk may be considered as 
consisting of a series of bony segments arranged 
longitudinally, one following the other. The skull, 
which is situated at the anterior portion of this 
series of segments, is much m^odified to form the 
large bony chamber which receives the brain. 
While there is still some difference of opinion as to 
the formation of the skull, the tendency among com- 
parative anatomists is, nevertheless, to consider that 
it has been formed by a modification of separate 
segments. 

The lower jaw, or inferior maxillary, is present in 
nearly all of the vertebrates, and consists of two 
halves or rami, which are united anteriorly, but 
posteriorly articulate separately with the skull. 
In some instances each ramus consists of several 
pieces united by sutures, but in the mammalia each 
ramus consists of but one piece. The two rami are 
sometimes united anteriorly by ligaments, by car- 
tilage, or there may be a bony union. In the rep- 
tiles and birds the inferior maxillary does not ar- 
ticulate directly with the skull as in the mammalia, 
but through the intervention of a third bone known 
as the quadrate bone, or os quadratum. 

Each separate bony segment which goes to make 
up the vertebral column is called a vertebra ; collec- 
tively they are known as vertebrae. The anterior 



THE VERTEBRATA. 2$ 

part of a vertebra is known as the centrtmi or body ; 
attached to the centrum posteriorly is a ring or 
arch, which is formed by two lateral projections or 
processes. These processes, on meeting behind, 
form the spinous process. The arches form with 
the centrum a ring through which passes the spinal 
canal. Owing to this circumstance the arch is 
spoken of as the neural arch, the ring as the neu- 
ral canal, and the spinous processes as the neural 
spine. Coming off from the neural arches are two 
processes called the articular processes. Two lat- 
eral processes called the transverse processes come 
ofif from the sides of the body of the vertebra at the 
junction with the neural arches. 

The comparative anatomist recognizes a second 
arch, which, owing to the modification the parts 
have undergone, is not as clearly recognized as the 
neural arch. This second arch is the hcBmal arch, 
which contains the organs of circulation, the ali- 
mentary canal and the accompanying structures. 
This haemal arch is formed by the ribs, the costal 
cartilages and the breastbone, or sternum, which, in 
some cases, as in most of the birds, develops a spine 
— the hcsmal spine — which corresponds to the 
neural spine on the opposite side. In the higher 
vertebrates the spinal column is divided into several 
different regions, namely, the cervical, the dorsal, 
the lumbar, the sacral and the caudal or coccygeal, 
all named according to the position they occupy in 
the series. 

The fore limbs are attached to the trunk by 
means of three bones — the scapula, the coracoid. 



26 THE MAMMALIA. 

and the clavicle — and these bones constitute a group 
which is frequently known as ih^ pectoral or shoulder 
arch. The clavicle is in many instances absent, and 
the coracoid is not always a separate bone. The 
hind limbs are connected in essentially the same 
manner by means of three other bones, the ilium^ 
the ischium and the pitbes^ which, collectively, are 
known as the pelvic arch; these three bones are 
frequently ossified together, and they then form 
what is known as the innominate bone. 

The fore limb consists of a single long bone, the 
humerus^ succeeded by two long bones, the radius 
and the ulna ; these are followed by two rows of 
small wrist bones, which constitute the carpus ; the 
carpus is succeeded by the metacarpus, the bones of 
which support the digits. The homologous struc- 
tures in the hind limb are the femur, the tibia and 
fibula, the tarsus, the metatarsus and the phalanges. 
All of these bones show considerable variation in 
the different vertebrates; sometimes there is a bony 
union between certain bones which are usually sep- 
arate; at other times certain of these bones may be 
absent. 

The sub-kingdom vertebrata is divided into five 
different classes, as follows : the Pisces or fishes, the 
A?nphibia, the Reptilia, the Aves or birds, and the 
Mammalia, It is with this last and highest class, 
the Mammalia, that we are at present particularly 
concerned. 

The mammalia include all those viviparous, warm- 
blooded animals which nourish their young by 
means of a special fluid, the milk, which is secreted 



THE MAMMALIA. 27 

by special glands, the mammary glands. At some 
period of their life they are always covered with 
hair. The lower jaw always articulates directly 
with the skull, and there are always two occipital 
condyles. The thorax is separated from the abdo- 
men by means of a large muscle, known as the dia- 
phragm. The cerebral hemispheres are connected 
by a transverse commissure, the corpus callosum. 
The heart consists of four chambers, two auricles 
and two ventricles, the pulmonary and systemic 
circulations thus being completely separated. The 
single aorta is reflected over the left bronchus. 

Except in the aquatic mammals — the cetacea and 
the sirenia — the vertebral column is divisible into 
the same regions as in man. The usual number of 
cervical vertebrae is seven. In the dorsal region 
there are from ten to twenty-four vertebrae; the 
usual number is thirteen; in man there are twelve. 
In the lumbar region there are from two to nine 
vertebrae; the usual number is six or seven; in man 
there are five. The sacral vertebrae are usually an- 
chylosed into a single bone, the sacrum. The 
caudal vertebrae vary greatly in number; in some 
bats there are only three; in man and some of the 
higher apes there are four, and in some other forms 
there are thirty. In man this caudal region is 
known as the coccyx. 

In the mammalia the skeleton varies, particularly 
in the limbs. The scapula is always present in all 
of the different members of this division. The 
coracoid bone, which is an important structure in 
birds, is only found as a separate and distinct bone 



28 THE MAMMALIA. 

in one order of the mammalia, the monotremata. 
In all of the other mammals it is attached to the 
scapula, and forms the coracoid process. The 
clavicles are never united to form a furcula or 
**vidsh-bone/' as in the birds; and they are only 
present in those mammals which use their anterior 
limbs for flight, for digging, or for prehension. 

The humerus is always present in the mammalia. 
The radius and ulna are always recognizable, al- 
though they are sometimes to an extent united ; in 
the bats the ulna may be absent. 

The number of bones entering into the formation 
of the carpus varies in the different mammals from 
five to eleven; in man there are eight. 

The metacarpus is, as a rule, composed of five 
bones. In the ruminants and in the horse there is 
but a single metacarpal bone, but the embryology 
and paleontology of these forms show that at one 
time there were a large number. 

The digits vary from one to five ; the latter being 
the typical number. Karl Gegenbaum first pointed 
out in the year 1864 how the five-toed forms of land 
vertebrates originated probably from the radiating 
breast fin of the ancient carboniferous fishes ; the 
middle one is the longest, and the thumb is fre- 
quently absent. As a rule each digit has three 
phalanges, except the thumb, which has but two. 
The ability to oppose the thumb to the rest of the 
digits is found particularly well developed in man, 
although it is present to a limited extent in the 
anthropoid apes. 

The posterior limbs are present in the majority of 



THE MAMMALIA. 29 

the mammalia. The pubic bones in nearly all mam- 
mals are united to form the ossa innominata in the 
adult, although in the embryo they are separate 
bones, the ilium, the ischium, and the pubes. 

In man the femur is the longest bone in the body, 
while in the other mammals it is relatively much 
shorter. The tibia and fibula are, as a rule, separate 
bones, although in some instances they are found 
united. The tibia corresponds to the radius anteri- 
orly, as may be recognized by the fact that it sup- 
ports the tarsus. The tarsus consists of from four 
to nine bones in the various mammals; in mxan there 
are seven. In the majority of instances there are 
five metacarpal bones and five digits, but this is 
subject to frequent variation, as are the correspond- 
ing structures of the anterior limb. 

Nearly all of the mammals are supplied with 
teeth, which are arranged in one row, and, with the 
single exception of the monotremata, always in 
sockets. There are usually two sets of teeth ; the 
first, or milk set, are soon lost, and are succeeded by 
the second or permanent teeth. These teeth are 
divisible into four different groups, which differ 
from one another in their position, appearance and 
function. These are the incisors, canines, premolars 
and molars. All of these teeth are not necessarily 
present in all mammals, and as there is considerable 
variation in their number and form, they furnish in 
many instances a valuable key for classification. 
The zoologist expresses the number and arrange- 
ment of the teeth in a set formula ; the dentition of 
adult man is expressed thus : 



30 ORDERS OF MAMMALIA. 



7£ZI^, ClZli, P^J^, j/3 



2 — 2 I — I 2 — 2 3 — 3 



32. 



The initial letter indicates the name of the teeth, 
and following this is the number; those of the 
upper jaw being expressed by the numerator, and 
those of the lower jaw being expressed by the de- 
nominator. 

Systematic zoologists have divided the mammalia 
into numerous orders from 12 to 32 in number, the 
higher numbers being represented when the extinct 
forms are considered ; but the three natural groups 
proposed by Bainville in the year 1816 are still 
sound as sub-classes : the monotremata ; the mar- 
supialia, and the placentalia. These sub-classes not 
merely present important differences in their anat- 
omy, but, historically, three different geological 
periods are correspondingly represented. The mon- 
otremes perhaps originated during the triassic per- 
iod. The earliest marsupials have been found in the 
Jurassic, and in the cretaceous periods the earliest 
placentals have been found. 

Many classifications of the mammalia have been 
made, but no one arrangement has been universally 
adopted by zoologists. All divisions are, of course, 
arbitrary ones, as the differences found in nature are 
all differences of degree and not differences of kind. 
For convenience, however, the following orders 
may be considered as comprising the living animals 
of the class mammalia : 

Order i. Monotremata. — In the animals of this 
order the ureters and ducts from the reproductive 



ORDERS OF MAMMALIA. 3I 

organs open in common into a urogenital canal, 
which with the rectum opens into a *' cloaca/' The 
testes are abdominal, and the mammary glands are 
without true nipples. The marsupial bones are 
present, but there is no pouch. Included in this 
order are two remarkable forms found in Australia, 
the Ornithorhynchus and the Echidna. 

Order 2. Marsupialia are characterized by the 
fact that the female usually possesses a pouch or 
marsupium, in which she carries her young, which 
are born in a very imperfect condition. The uterine 
ends of the oviducts with the ureters open into a 
urogenital canal, which is distinct from the rectum, 
although included in the same sphincter muscle. 
The marsupial bones are present and are well devel- 
oped. In this order are included the kangaroos and 
the opossums. 

Order 3. Edentata. — The absence of the median 
incisors, sometimes all of the incisors, characterizes 
this order. Occasionally the canines and also the 
molars are absent. The dentition in this order is 
very incomplete and very variable. Included here 
are the sloths, armadillos and the great ant-eater. 

Order 4. Sirenia. — Includes the dugongs and the 
manatees, mammals which are adapted for an 
aquatic life. The hind limbs are absent and the fore 
limbs are modified into swimming paddles. The 
nostrils are two in number and are situated on the 
upper part of the snout. The tail fin is expanded 
horizontally. 

Order 5. Cetacea. — Includes the whales and the 
dolphins, which are also mammals modified for an 



32 ORDERS OF MAMMALIA. 

aquatic existence. The fore limbs are the only ones 
present and these are modified into swimming pad- 
dles. The nostrils are situated on the top of the 
head, and the mammary glands are situated in the 
region of the groin. 

Order 6. Ungulata. — The animals of this order 
are characterized by the fact that there are never 
more than four full-sized toes to each limb and that 
these are covered by expanded nails, forming hoofs. 
There are no clavicles present. This order includes 
all of the hoofed quadrupeds, and the ruminants, as 
horses, oxen, tapirs, rhinoceroses, hippopotami, 
camels, llamas, deer and a number of others. 

Order 7. Hyracoidea, — Includes the single genus 
Hyrax, or coney of Syria and Palestine. The canines 
are absent and the incisors grow from persistent 
pulps. There are no clavicles present. 

Order 8. Proboscidea, — The elephant is the only 
living form in this order. The upper incisor teeth 
grow from persistent pulps and form tusks. There 
are no clavicles present. The nose is modified into 
a proboscis or trunk. 

Order 9. Carnwora. — This is a large order and 
includes all of the well-known beasts of prey, as 
lions, tigers, cats, dogs, wolves, foxes and others. 
They all possess three different varieties of teeth, 
viz,: incisors, canines and molars. All of these 
teeth possess sharp cutting edges rather than crowns 
for the grinding of the food. The clavicles are quite 
rudimentary. The seals and walruses, which can 
almost be considered as leading a semi-aquatic ex- 
istence, belong to this order. 



ORDERS OF MAMMALIA. 33 

•i- Order lo. Rodentia, — Includes those forms 
where the incisor teeth grow from persistent pulps 
throughout the entire life of the animal. There are 
no canine teeth present. The beavers, rats, mice, 
squirrels, rabbits, and some others belong to this 
order. 

Order ii. Cheiroptera. — Includes the bats, in 
which forms the four outer or ulna fingers are 
greatly developed and elongated and are united by 
a membrane or patagium, which is continuous from 
the side of the body and the hind limb. Owing to 
this modification, bats possess the power of flight. 
Well-developed clavicles are always found present 
in these forms. 

Order 12. Insectivora. — Includes the moles, 
shrew-mice and hedgehogs. They are all of small 
size, and possess strong claws, which are used for 
burrowing. They have tapering mouths and many 
sharply-pointed teeth ; the canine teeth, however, 
are either small or absent. There are clavicles 
present. 

Order 13. Prir/iates, — The order of the primates 
includes the most highly organized members of the 
entire animal series : the lemurs, the monkeys, the 
apes and man. They all have opposable thumbs on 
some of the extremities, and, with the exception of 
the marmosets, they all have flat nails instead of 
claws. The dental formula is usually : 



2 • 


— 2 

y 

— 2 


I 


\ p' 

— I 2 — 


233 


The 


brain 
3 


is 


proportionally 


more developed than 



34 THE ORDER OF THE PRIMATES. 

the brain of other animals, and the fore limbs are 
mainly used to wait on the head, i, e.^ prehension. 

The primates are divided into two sub- orders : the 
Prosimice and the Anthropoidea, The first group 
includes the lemurs. They vary from the size of a 
rabbit to that of a monkey. The body is entirely 
covered with thick fur ; when walking they go on 
all four feet, and they usually possess long tails. At 
the present time the distribution of the lemurs is 
limited to Madagascar, Eastern Asia and South 
Africa ; in earlier times their distribution was proba- 
bly more extensive, as the bones of forms ap- 
parently of this type from the eocene beds of the 
Rocky Mountains have been described by Cope and 
Marsh. 

The sub-order Anthropoidea are ''characterized 
by the large, convoluted cerebral hemispheres, 
which nearly, or in the higher apes and man, con- 
ceal the cerebellum when seen from above. The 
ears are rounded, with a distinct lobule, and the 
two mammae are pectoral." (Packard.) 

They are divided into two subdivisions ; the first 
includes the monkeys and the apes, and the second 
includes only man. 

The American monkeys have an additional pre- 
molar tooth on each side of each jaw. They usually 
have prehensile tails, and the thumb of the hand is 
not well developed; in the spider-monkeys it is ab- 
sent. Their nostrils are separated by a very wide 
partition, and are hence called PlatyrrhincE, They 
live in troops mostly in the forests of Brazil. 

The Old World monkeys and apes have a narrow 



THE ORDER OF THE PRIMATES. 35 

nasal septum, and are hence said to be catarrhine ; 
their dentition is the same as that of man, and their 
tails when present are never prehensile. The mon- 
keys commonly seen in menageries are the macaques 
of India. The baboons have elongated jaws, cheek 
pouches and callous patches upon which they sit. 
The only species now living in Europe is the Bar- 
bary ape. In the sacred monkey of India and the 
thumbless Colobus of Africa they have no cheek 
pouches, the stomach is more complex and they 
possess long tails and callosities. 

The highest members of this group are the an- 
thropoid apes. They possess no tails, callosities nor 
cheek pouches. They live mainly in trees, at times, 
however, walking on the ground, sometimes in a 
semi-erect posture. The gibbon, the orang-outang, 
the chimpanzee and the gorilla belong to this group. 
The gibbons in many respects resemble the mon- 
keys; they are less than 3 feet in height and are 
slender and agile; when erect, their fingers touch 
the ground ; they possess fourteen pairs of ribs. 
They belong to the fauna of Southern Asia. The 
orang-outang is from 4 to 4^ feet in height and 
has twelve pairs of ribs, and lives in Borneo and 
Sumatra. The chimpanzee and the gorilla inhabit 
the west coast of Africa. The chimpanzee stands 
about 5 feet in height and has fourteen pairs of ribs ; 
it lives in trees and eats mainly fruit; they travel, as 
a rule, in groups. The gorilla sometimes attains a 
height of 5)^ feet and weighs nearly 200 pounds, 
being of prodigious strength; it has, like the chim- 
panzee, fourteen pairs of ribs ; its habits of life in 
general resemble those of the chimpanzee. 



36 THE FAMILY HOMINID^. 

Man was first placed among the Primates by the 
great naturalist Linnaeus, and belongs to the family 
HominidcE, When Linnaeus thus classified man 
none disputed it to any extent until the time of 
Darwin, when the anti-evolutionary philosophers, in 
their courageous but unwise attempts to refute evo- 
lution, endeavored to separate man from animate 
nature as much as possible, and place him in a little 
hierarchy of his own. However, naturalists are 
now quite agreed that the anatomical characteristics 
possessed by man are such that he without question 
should be placed in the order of the Primates, and 
that he belongs to that particular family of the 
Primates denominated the Hominidse. 

In this family locomotion is easiest in the erect 
position; the thumb is opposable to the other 
fingers; the great toe can grasp only by approxi- 
mation and not by opposition. The muscles which 
keep the body erect, such as those of the back, the 
extensors of the hip-joint, and the muscles of the 
calf of the leg, are much more developed propor- 
tionally than the corresponding structures in the 
monkeys and apes. The vertebral column of man 
presents a series of curves, which results in the 
centre of gravity falling between the feet. The 
family Hominidae is usually considered as compris- 
ing only the genus Homo and having but the single 
living species Sapiejts, 

The study of man as a species constitutes the 
science of Anthropology. 

The anthropologist studies man as an animal; 
and although he possesses certain traits which are 



'■k 



SPECIAL CREATION. 37 

exclusively human, he is still, nevertheless, an 
organized being and subject to the same laws and 
conditions of other organized beings. He is in 
certain respects the superior of all other animals, 
but in other respects he is their inferior. 

The physiologist, being unable to perform his 
experiments upon man, experiments upon the 
lower animals, and from the results thus gained de- 
duces what the effect would be upon the human 
subject. So it is with the anthropologist. When 
he observes any characteristic in man, anatomical or 
otherwise, the explanation of which is not self- 
evident, he endeavors to observe the same charac- 
teristic in the lower animals, and thus, by studying 
the subject comparatively, important results are 
frequently obtained. 

The first consideration that confronts us in the 
study of man is the question of his origin. The 
two ideas held at the present time are that man 
originated through Creation or Evolution. 

Those believing in the Doctrine of Special Crea- 
tion believe that man and all other species have 
been specially created in their present form at some 
point within their present geographical habitat, and 
that variation exhibited by them is within certain 
definite limits, and that it is not sufficient to pro- 
duce new species. 

The Doctrine of Organic Evohition teaches that 
man and all of the other organic forms are not 
separate creations, but that each bears a certain 
definite relationship to all other forms; that all 
organic forms undergo modifications, and that all 



38 ORGANIC EVOLUTION. 

of our present plants and animals are the descend- 
ants of pre-existing plants and animals. 

The factors of organic evolution, as advanced by 
Darwin, and commonly referred to as the Darwinian 
theory, are as follows : 

(i) All species of animals and plants exhibit ten- 
dencies to variation from the parent stock. This 
may be readily observed in the young of any of our 
domesticated animals ; never do we find the young 
absolutely similar to the parents. These variations, 
however slight, are of importance, and, through 
heredity, are transmitted to succeeding generations. 
It is of importance to remember that no two indi- 
viduals are exactly alike in all particulars. 

(2) The environment under which all organic 
forms are placed is not an absolutely unchanging 
one, but it is continually varying, and the organic 
forms are thus placed constantly under different 
conditions. This modification of external condi- 
tions requires a corresponding modification on the 
part of the organism. This modification may be 
anatomical or otherwise, but modification there 
must be ; if it does not occur, the extinction of the 
organism, or, ultimately, even the species, is the in- 
evitable result. 

(3) All organisms produce more progeny than 
can possibly survive, hence a process of natural 
selection ensues, in which those that possess any 
favorable variation, adapting them more perfectly 
to their environment, survive; while those which do 
not possess the favorable characteristics are placed 
at a disadvantage in the struggle for existence, and 
will in time perish. 



ORGANIC EVOLUTION. 39 

(4) The results of continued use and disuse are 
also factors of importance in organic evolution. It 
is well known that the continued use of an organ 
or structure tends to its enlargement, while con- 
tinued disuse, on the other hand, results in its atro- 
phy or degeneration. This was first pointed out 
by Lamarck, and has since been verified by many 
naturalists. The late Prof. E. D. Cope has thor- 
oughly illustrated this factor in many of its import- 
ant bearings, in his work on the ''Origin of the 
Fittest." 

The value of any theory may to an extent be 
measured by the number and the importance of the 
facts which it is able to explain, and, furthermore, 
when a natural explanation can be given for any 
phenomena we should not resort to a supernatural 
explanation. This was first insisted upon by Sir 
William Hamilton, and it constituted, what he de- 
nominated to be the ''Law of Parsimony." The hy- 
pothesis of organic evolution affords the most natural 
explanation that has ever been offered to explain 
the origin of the various species and other groups 
of both vegetable and animal life ; and this theory is 
based upon the most thorough investigation as to 
the structure and the life-history of organic forms. 

The credit for the recognition of the theory of 
organic evolution belongs largely, of course, to 
Charles Robert Darwin, but, at the same time, we 
should recognize that there were several other in- 
vestigators in the field of natural science before his 
time to whom great credit belongs for having appre- 
ciated certain significant morphological relationships 



40 ORGANIC EVOLUTION. 

and physiological factors of great importance in the 
development of life along the lines of what later 
became the development theory. 

The distinguished French naturaHst Jean Lamarck 
in the year 1809 published his Philosophie Zoblogi- 
que. In this work it is easy to find many ideas 
which distinctly foreshadowed our present ideas of 
organic evolution. He clearly recognized that 
adaptation to environment was a cause of morpho- 
logical modification. He also considered that habit 
as to the use and disuse of structures to be a factor 
of great importance in the modification of the ani- 
mal structure. He was one of the earliest natural- 
ists to recognize that, in the origin and classifica- 
tion of animals we cannot have a linear genetic 
series continuing from the lower to the higher with 
all animal forms included therein ; but that relation- 
ships must be shown by a branching genealogical 
tree in which the highest forms of one group of 
animals may not necessarily be closely allied to the 
lowest forms of the next higher group. 

Johann Wolfgang Goethe, the distinguished poet- 
naturalist, Vv^ho is generally rememibered only as the 
author of Faust, made some contributions to nat- 
ural science that will always be remembered. He 
gave especial study to the theory of homologies 
and recognized the importance of the recognition 
of the unity of type in related groups. In the year 
1790, his Metamorphosis of Plants was published, in 
which he considered that all of the parts of a flower 
are modifications of a type which is most clearly 
seen in the leaf. This is decidedly evolutionary. 



ORGANIC EVOLUTION. 4I 

His theory as to the vertebral origin of the struct- 
ure of the skull was recognized to be of great im- 
portance to comparative anatomy, although it has 
since been greatly modified by other investigators. 

In November, 1859, Darwin's work The Origin 
of Species by means of Natural Selection appeared, 
and it at once attracted the attention of students 
not merely of the biological sciences but also of all 
other departments of knowledge; for the reason 
that those factors which have been operating in the 
production of the various life-forms are such that 
apply not merely to organic things, but also to the 
various kinds of knowledge and invention as have 
been developed by mankind. Thus we refer to the 
evolution of art, science, and literature, and also to 
the many sub-divisions of these subjects. Asso- 
ciated with Darwin in this connection was Alfred 
Russel Wallace, who had spent years as a field nat- 
uralist in the Malay Archipelago and who, inde- 
pendently of Darwin, had himself recognized the 
theory of Natural Selection. In the year 1858, 
Wallace sent his views to Darwin with the request 
to present them to Sir Gharles Lyell. Darwin had 
written a preliminary sketch of his theory in the 
year 1848 but had never published it. Sir Charles 
Lyell and Sir Joseph D. Hooker had long been 
familiar with Darwin's work, and they induced him 
to publish an extract of his work along with the 
paper by Wallace. Both papers appeared simul- 
taneously in the Journal of the Limieaii Society 
for August, 1858. 

For evolution to have succeeded in producing 



42 THE NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS. 

the innumerable varieties of organic life, so diverse 
and so numerous, including both the vegetable and 
the animal, forms not only living at the present 
time, but also forms long since extinct, and which 
are now exhumed from the beds of the earth, where 
they have been for ages, that they may give the tes- 
timony of their history; for these changes to have 
occurred, a long period of time in the life-history 
of the earth must have been necessary. Have we 
any evidence to indicate that sufficient time has 
existed? 

The universal testimony of modern science is that 
our earth is very much older than it was previously 
supposed to be. According to the nebular hypo- 
thesis, which at the present time is quite generally 
accepted, the sun, the earth, and all of the other 
planets consisted at one time of one great mass of 
gaseous matter, such as the faint nebulse that astron- 
omers observe at the present time. It is considered 
that the original nebula that comprised our present 
sun and planetary system, continually rotating on 
its own axis, gradually condensed, and from its 
mass successive portions were thrown of which 
subsequently became those bodies we speak of as 
the planets. These planets, slowly condensing and 
cooling, continued to revolve around the sun, which 
itself is slowly but surely cooling and condensing. 
This theory explains in a satisfactory manner the 
reason why the earth and the other planets are so 
closely related to and dependent upon the sun. It 
also explains why the interior of the earth is still hot. 

When the earth passing through these different 



THE GEOLOGICAL FACTORS. 43 

changes and conditions had sufficiently cooled, con- 
densation began and various changes occurred, each 
previous change rendering succeeding events possi- 
ble. The rocks that formed the original crust of 
the earth are spoken of as being igneous in origin, 
because they were formed under the action of heat. 
Through the agency of water these igneous rocks 
were to an extent worn away and subsequently 
again deposited. Many and various were the phe- 
nomena that occurred ; and gradually, not suddenly, 
the nature of things underwent modification. 

The earth is constantly undergoing changes. 
Through the mighty agency of water the land is 
especially modified. Every spring, rivulet and 
stream is charged with a certain amount of solid 
material or sediment which is being carried ulti- 
mately to the sea. The amount of solid material in 
any stream depends on a number of circumstances; 
thus the character of the substance is a factor, and 
the depth, velocity and general character of the 
stream are others. When the stream or river 
reaches the sea the solid material it contains is de- 
posited in layers, which by geologists are termed 
strata. 

The following are the different periods of geo- 
logical time that are recognized by geologists : the 
oldest rock formations and those which were igne- 
ous in origin, forming the original primitive crust 
of the earth, have been called the PrimevaL 
Whether any rocks of this character can now be 
recognized is very doubtful. The oldest of the 
sedimentary rocks, or those deposited through the 



44 THE GEOLOGICAL STRATIFICATIONS. 

agency of water, are the Arches an ; they do not 
show positive evidences of contemporaneous life, 
although it is highly probable that life existed at 
this time. The next period is the Cambrian, and 
this was abundantly supplied with primitive life 
forms; molluscs, crustaceans and the trilobites were 
quite abundant. The succeeding period was the 
Silurian, in which the mollusca were particularly 
abundant, and, in addition to these, the animals of 
the highest type — the vertebrata — first make their 
appearance in the form of the earliest fishes; the 
coral-forming animals also seem to have been 
abundant at this time. The succeeding period, the 
Devonian, is called the ''age of fishes," as, during 
this period, the cartilaginous and ganoid fishes 
were quite common, although the more highly or- 
ganized bony fishes had not as yet evolved. Dur- 
ing this time vegetation was also quite abundant. 
During the next epoch, the Carboniferous, vegeta- 
tion was luxuriant, this being the great coal-bearing 
period. The amphibians now first appeared, and 
giant forms of the salamander type flourished. In 
the succeeding period, the Permia^i, the reptiles had 
evolved, and this is referred io as the " age of rep- 
tiles." Next comes the Triassic period, which is of 
particular importance, owing to the circumstance 
that during this time members of the class Mam- 
malia lived, rem.ains of which, in the form, of mar- 
supials, have here been found. The other life forms 
in general show^ also a progressive development to 
have taken place over those organisms which lived 
during the preceding periods. 



THE GEOLOGICAL STRATIFICATIONS. 



45 





Epochs. 


Faunal Characters. 


i 

< 


Post-Pliocene 
Glacial 

Pliocene, 3,000 feet 
Miocene, 4,000 feet 

Eocene. 10,000 feet 


Man. Mammals of living species. Mollusca 
recent. 


H 


Mammals of recent genera. Living species rare. 
Mollusca very modern. 


o 

U 

s 


Mammals of living families; many extinct genera. 
Mollusca largely of recent species. 


o 

< 


Mammals of numerous extinct families and or- 
ders. All the species and most of the genera 
extinct. Modern type shell-fish. 




Laramie, 4iOoo feet 


Passage beds. 


8 


Cretaceous, 12,000 feet 
Chalk 

Jurassic, 6,000 feet 

Triassic, 5,000 feet 
New Red Sandstone 


Dinosaurian (bird-like) reptiles, pterodactyles 
(flying reptiles), toothed birds, earliest turtles, 
ammonites. 


H 

o 
u 


Earliest birds, giant reptiles, ammonites, clam 
and snail shells. Decline of brachiopods. 
Butterfly. 


O 
N 
O 


Earliest mammal (marsupial), two-gilled cephal- 
opods, reptilian footprints. 


Permian, s.ooo feet 

Carboniferous, 26,000 
feet 
Coal 

Devonian, 18,000 feet 
Old Red Sandstone 

Silurian, 33,000 feet 
Cambrian, 24,000 feet 


Earliest true reptiles. 


•< 

::4 


Earliest amphibian. Extinction of trilobites. 
Earliest crayfish, beetles, cockroaches, centi- 
peds, spiders. 


o 
u 


Cartilaginous and ganoid fishes. First land and 
fresh-water shells; shell-fish; decline of trilo- 
bites; May-flies; crab. 


O 
N 

s 

<2 


Earliest fish; first air-breathers (insect scorpion); 
brachiopods and cephalopods; trilobites; 
corals. 




Trilobites; brachiopod molluscs. 


o 


Archaean, 30,000 feet 

Huronian 

Laurentian 


Eozoon (probably not a fossil). 


< 


Primeval 


Non-sedimentary. 



The Jurassic period comes next, and here have 



46 THE GREAT ICE AGE. 

been found the earliest remains of birds which have 
many reptilian characteristics. The reptiles also 
possessed many avian characteristics^ as the power 
of flight ; and they, in some instances, were forms 
of gigantic size. The following period was the 
Cretaceous, during which age many bird-like rep- 
tiles still lived, and birds possessing teeth were 
common. True bony fishes abounded and the 
mammalian type flourished. During the Jurassic 
and Cretaceous periods the differentiation of the 
Vertebrata probably largely occurred, as paleon- 
tology so abundantly supplies forms from these for- 
mations which bridge over the differences of struc- 
ture in the different classes of the vertebrata, show- 
ing that the relationships existing between these 
classes during these periods were very close. The 
succeeding formations, the Eocene, the Miocene, the 
Pliocene and the Post-Pliocene, show a continuance 
of the evolutionary process, higher forms being 
found in each succeeding formation ; and finally in 
the last, man appears, although it is possible that 
future research may establish an earlier date for his 
origin. 

During this last period there also occurred an- 
other event of great importance, which is known as 
the Great Ice Age or the Glacial period, owing to 
the circumstance that in the northern hemisphere, 
and perhaps also in the southern, large portions of 
the earth were covered by mighty glaciers, thou- 
sands of feet in thickness and which necessarily 
greatly affected all forms of contemporaneous life. 

These periods, here so briefly outlined, constitute 



THE PROBLEM OF GEOLOGICAL TIME. 47 

the epochs through which the earth has passed and 
during which evolution has operated to produce the 
present forms of Hfe. It must not be inferred that 
the causes that produced these great changes have 
ceased to operate, for such is not by any means the 
case. The factors of nature that have operated in 
the past are still at work to-day, and it is inconceiv- 
able that they should cease to be the factors of the 
future. 

It is by the study of the different stratifications 
and the fossils contained therein that geologists are 
enabled to estimate approximately their age. It 
has been calculated that a period of more than a 
million years was necessary for the formation of the 
carboniferous strata, the coal-bearing period requir- 
ing probably at least 600,000 years. The eminent 
naturalist, Humboldt, considered that a period of 
nearly 1,000,000 years was necessary for the forma- 
tion of the guano deposits, which are composed of 
the excreta of sea birds. On the authority of Croll, 
the last glacial period ended at least 100,000 years 
ago. If these periods separately consumed such 
long durations of time, collectively the time required 
must have been enormous, far beyond anything the 
mind can conceive of. Sir Charles Lyell considered 
that a period of 560,000,000 years must have been 
necessary. Other scientists consider that 100,000,- 
000 years is sufficiently long for the deposition of 
all of the different stratifications of the earth's crust, 
from the earliest to those of the present time. 

While there are many estimations of geological 
time made, and while the opinions expressed are 



48 THE PLACE OF MAN's ORIGIN. 

diverse, they all, nevertheless, agree in the one im- 
portant particular that the different changes through 
which the earth has passed to reach its present 
condition must have required immense periods 
of time, far beyond anything of which we can con- 
ceive. 

The place and the time of the origin of the 
human species bring up questions that can only at 
the present time be answered approximately, the 
data so far accumulated not being sufficient for the 
deduction of positive opinions. 

However, man in his early unprotected condition, 
unable to battle with the elements, must have origi- 
nated in some portion of the earth where the climate 
and other physical conditions were suitable for his 
existence. The climate was probably a tropical or 
sub-tropical one, such as exists in Southern Europe, 
Northern Africa, Southern Asia, Southern North 
America and Northern South America. Man must 
further have originated in a region where the high- 
est of the lower animals exist, or at one time existed, 
as it is supposed that man descended from some of 
these forms. This excludes both North and South 
America, because these continents have never been 
inhabited by any animals which can be considered 
to be the ancestors of man ; this leaves the birth- 
place of the human species at some point in the 
region of Southern Europe, Equatorial Africa or 
Southern Asia. 

In each of these regions there exist, or at one 
time existed, anthropoid apes which closely re- 
sembled man. In Southern France the bones of 



THE ANTHROPOID APES. 49 

the Dryopithecus fontani have been exhumed in the 
valley of the Garonne. It v^as in height about the 
size of a man, and its dentition resembled that of 
some primitive peoples. In Southeastern Asia and 
some of the Malay Islands are found many species 
of gibbons or long-armed apes. In West Africa, 
the animals bearing the closest resemblance to man 
are the chimpanzee and the gorilla. 

''By universal consent," says A. R. Wallace, 'Sve 
see in the monkey tribe a caricature of humanity. 
Their faces, their hands, their actions and expres- 
sions present ludicrous resemblances to our ov^n.'' 
If the skeletons of the higher anthropoids are com- 
pared with those of man, we find all of the bones, 
with very few exceptions, corresponding, the differ- 
ences being those of degree and not of kind. This 
resemblance is so pronounced that Professor Owen 
says : " I cannot shut my eyes to the significance of 
that all-pervading similitude of structure — every 
tooth, every bone, strictly homologous— which 
makes the determination of the difference between 
Homo and Pithecus the anatomist's difficulty. 

To the anatomist or physiologist that studies but 
a single type of animal, no matter how competent 
or how thorough he may be, as to his particular 
specialty, the origin of animal structures may be to 
him incomprehensible; but to him who approaches 
the subject from the standpoint of comparative 
anatomy or physiology, guided by the compass of 
evolution, the explanation afforded thereby becomes 
clear, although the extent and character of struct- 
ural development may vary greatly. 

4 



50 THE ANTHROPOID APES. 

The resemblance of man to the anthropoid apes 
thus being so pronounced, we must very naturally 
infer that both are the result of closely similar con- 
ditions, and that they both have originated prob- 
ably in a geographical area in common. 

It should always be remembered that the evolu- 
tionist does not consider that man was descended 
from any of the living species of anthropoid apes, 
but that they both had one common ancestor, now 
extinct. 

While perhaps at the present time much of the 
evidence seems to indicate that some part of South- 
ern Asia was the original home of man, there are a 
number of facts which make it not improbable that 
man may have inhabited as his earliest home a 
region which has now sunk below the level of the 
sea. 

The theory has been advanced that, during com- 
paratively recent geological times, a large portion 
of what is now the Indian Ocean was occupied by a 
great land mass which stretched from Asia as far 
east as farther India and the Sunda Islands to the 
southeastern shores of Africa. The island of Mada- 
gascar is considered to be a remnant of this ancient 
continent. The geographical distribution of animals 
and plants seems to indicate that this land mass may 
have existed. This land has been denominated^ 
" Lemuria," from the semi-apes which were proba- 
bly characteristic of the region. If this land did 
really exist at the time that has been assigned to 
it, it may be possible that in this region was the 
cradle of the human species. 



ARCH^OLOGICAL FINDS. 5I 

As the exact geographical area in which man 
originated cannot at the present time be definitely 
stated, it consequently follows that the exact time 
of his origin is unknown. The question can, how- 
ever, be considered in a general manner with evi- 
dence furnished by geology and archaeology. 

When the remains of man or the implements of 
human workmanship, such as weapons and tools, 
are found undisturbed in certain deposits, it is logi- 
cal to infer that man existed on the earth at the 
time these remains or implements were deposited. 

Probably the first scientist of note to insist on the 
great antiquity of man was Boucher de Perthes. 
He exhibited, in the year 1838, a series of flint im- 
plements found by him in the valley of the Somme, 
a river of Northern France, which empties into the 
English Channel. This river runs through a dis- 
trict composed largely of white chalk, Vv^hich is, to a 
certain extent, covered with Tertiary deposits. 
These Tertiary deposits are in turn covered by 
gravels, and it is in these deposits that the remains 
of human workmanship in the form of stone imple- 
ments were found, also the bones of many ani- 
mals, such as the bear, hyena, elephant, etc. For 
years the discoveries of Boucher de Perthes were 
ignored, but at length, when his investigations were 
continued and verified by others, they were finally 
accepted. Among the many eminent scientific men 
who visited the locality was Sir Charles Lyell, in 
whose presence a number of flint implements were 
found. That these implements were of human work- 
manship, and that they were found in undisturbed 



52 ARCH^OLOGICAL FINDS. 

deposits associated with the remains of animals long 
since extinct, no one competent to pass an opinion 
doubts, and this at once proves that the antiquity of 
man reaches for back into the prehistoric past, long 
before the pages of history vv^ere written or the tales 
of tradition were told. 

Since these discoveries in the valley of the Somme, 
many other flint implements have been found in 
other parts of Europe, Asia and America. Not only 
have the remains of man and the remains of extinct 
animals been found together, but in a number of 
instances the workmanship of man is found on the 
bones of these extinct animals. It has been found 
that, in nearly all of the animals mentioned as hav- 
ing been contemporaneous with man, their bones 
have been injured. Sometimes they have been 
broken, evidently with the intention of obtaining 
the marrow from them, which was presumably used 
as an article of diet. Or in some instances rude 
drawings are found on the bones, sometimes of 
animals which at that time were living species, but 
which now are extinct. 

Many of the vestiges of early man have been 
found in caves, which seem to have been apparently 
the favorite resorts of primitive man, affording him 
protection from the elements and from the ferocious 
animals vv^hich were contemporaneous with him.. 
Many caves have been examined, and much valuable 
information has been gained therefrom. 

The first cave to attract the attention of scientific 
men, and which threv/ much light upon the antiquity 
of man, was the cave of Aurignac, which was dis- 



ARCH^OLOGICAL FINDS. 53 

covered in France, near the town of Aurignac, on 
the southern slope of the Pyrenees. M. Lartet ex- 
amined this cave most carefully, and published his 
account of it in the year 1861. This cave evidently 
represented a tomb, which was in use by early man 
of the stone age ; the entrance was closed by a slab 
of sandstone. Inside of the cave were found the 
remains of a number of skeletons of men, womien 
and children, associated with numerous stone imple- 
ments. The remains of a number of soecies of 

J. 

animals contemporaneous with man at that tim.e 
were also found here, am.ong which were the cave 
bear, the mammoth, the horse, the cave hyena, the 
rhinoceros, and several other species. Some of these 
anim.als had probably been eaten at the cave, as 
their bones showed the action of fire, the ashes of 
which were discovered. Many of the bones were 
scraped and furrowed, evidently by flint implements. 
All of the human remains were found inside of the 
cave, and all of the bones, both of man and of the 
lower animals, showed the signs of great antiquity. 
The age of these remains has been estimated at from 
10,000 to 50,000 years. 

The well-known kitchenmiddens or shell heaps of 
Denmark throw some interesting light on the 
antiquity of the human race. These kitchenmiddens 
are composed of large accumulations of shells and 
also to a lesser extent of the bones of fishes, birds 
and mammals. These remains could only have been 
accumulated by early man, and represent the ani- 
mals that served him as food. The remote presence 
of man here is also indicated by stone implements 
and weapons. 



54 ARCH^OLOGICAL FINDS. 

The earliest geological period at which man is 
supposed to have originated is during the earlier 
tertiary formations. Here many of the animals 
which were the contemporaries of primitive man 
have been found, and the bones of man and his 
implements have here also been associated. This 
raises the question : Are the remains of man as old 
as the remains of the animals ? This question first 
gave rise to discussion in the year 1863, when M. 
Desnoyers reported his discovery of cut and split 
bones from the gravel pit of Saint Prest. Here he 
found the tibia of a rhinoceros, showing grooves 
and incisions similar to those made by man at a 
later period ; these gravel deposits were, however, 
considered by some geologists to be early quarter- 
nary, rather than late tertiary, but this discovery at 
least takes man back to the borders of the tertiary 
period. 

At the meeting of the International Congress of 
Prehistoric Anthropology and Archaeology, held at 
Paris, in the year 1867, Professor Issel presented 
evidences of tertiary man of Savonia. Here, in 
pliocene deposits, he had found several human bones 
of undoubted antiquity. 

In Italy many of the remains of the workmanship 
and also the bones of tertiary man have been found 
in pliocene deposits. Signor Capellini has discovered 
what may almost be considered positive proofs of 
man's existence in pliocene times in the clay de- 
posits at Monte Aperto. In this locality he has 
found the ribs and shoulder-blade of the Balenotus 
marked by numerous deep incisions, which only 



THE NEANDERTHAL SKULL. 55 

could have been made by a sharp instrument in the 
hands of a man. 

In Thenay flints of human workmanship have 
been found in the miocene (middle tertiary) de- 
posits by Abbe Bourgeois. These flints are of var- 
ious forms and sizes, and are generally admitted to 
have been made by man. 

Many of the osseous remains of primitive man 
furnish characteristics which indicate that he was 
the inferior of the man of to-day. Of these remains 
it will be sufficient to call attention to only the most 
important. 

In the small valley of Neander, a tributary to the 
Rhine, some workingmen, in the year 1857, opened 
a cave in which were found some human bones, in- 
cluding a portion of the skull. This skull has since 
become known, world-wide, as the Neanderthal 
skull. It is considered to possess many ape-like 
characteristics, as the prominent supra-orbital 
ridges, the gradual sloping of the back part of the 
head, and its great length in proportion to its 
width. The cranial capacity of this skull is 1,200 
c.cm. It is perhaps the most ape-like skull of a 
human being that has ever been discovered. 

In addition to the skull portion there were found 
two humeri, two femora, and some other portions 
of the skeleton ; unfortunately the inferior maxillary 
was not preserved. In the vicinity where these 
remains were found, there were also obtained the 
remains of the rhinoceros, cave bear, and hyena. 
The Neanderthal specimens are now in the Fuhlrott 
collection, Elberfeld. 



56 THE SPECIMENS OF SPY. 

In the commune of Spy, in Belgium, two interest- 
ing skulls were found in the year 1886, which have 
since become known as the man and woman of Spy. 
The remains were found associated w4th those of 
the horse, mastodon, cave hyena, and other extinct 
species. Flint implements were also found here. 
Two skeletons were unearthed ; neither of them was 
complete, but enough of them was obtained to furn- 
ish an opinion as to their general characteristics. 
One of these skulls was apparently that of an old 
woman, and the other of a man of middle age. 
Both of these skulls were quite thick ; the skull of 
the woman was long, while that of the man was 
slightly shorter. The supra-orbital regions were 
pronounced, and the foreheads were low. The jaws 
were heavy and the chins were very small. The 
teeth were large, and the third molars were as large 
as the others. All of these characteristics indicate 
an old and inferior race. 

The well-known cave explorer, Dr. Edward Du- 
pont, in the year 1866, found at Naulette, in Bel- 
gium, a portion of a very remarkable human jaw. 
This jaw showed an almost entire absence of the 
chin, and as the prominent chin is a characteristic 
which is confined to man, this specimen is a most 
significant and important one. The lower animals 
all possess a retreating chin, and hence the Naulette 
jaw is considered in this particular to occupy an 
intermediate position. The dentition of this javv^ is 
peculiar, in certain respects resembling that of man, 
while in other ^features it resembles that of the an- 
thropoid apes, and shows some very marked simian 



PITHECANTHROPUS ERECTUS. 57 

characters ; the teeth were unfortunately lost, but 
the alveolar processes indicated that the canine 
teeth were very large and strong, also that the 
molars were large, increasing in size posteriorly. 
Associated with this jaw the remains of the mam- 
moth, the rhinoceros, and the reindeer were found. 
The Naulette jaw is now in the Brussels Natural 
History Museum. 

Of the later discoveries of the remains of early 
man, none surpass in value or interest that of Dr. 
Eugene Dubois, who found (1891--94) a calavarium, 
a third upper molar tooth and a femur, in beds of 
presumably pleistocene age in the island of Java. 
The cranial capacity of this skull has been esti- 
mated at 1,000 c.cm., which is about midway be- 
tween that of the average normal of man and that of 
the highest anthropoid. Virchow has pointed out, 
however, that some of the Negritos have a cranial 
capacity even less than that of this specimen, and 
until more data is furnished regarding the Java 
specimen a positive conclusion cannot be formed. 
Dr. Dubois has called the specimen Pithecanthropus 
erectus, considering it to be not only a new species 
of man, but also a new genus, and also a new family, 
which he denominated the PithecanthropidcE , 

In the Thames Valley, Kent, the remains of a 
skeleton were found by Mr. R. Elliott and Mr. 
Matthew Hays in pleistocene gravels associated 
with many paleolithic implements and the remains 
of extinct mammals. The skull was exceedingly 
long, narrow, and much depressed with the fore- 
head receding. The main sutures were obliterated. 



58 CAVE OF MENTONE. 

These remains are without doubt very ancient, and 
the most primitive that have been found in England. 

At Podbada, near Prague, a portion of a skull 
was found in clay deposits in 1883, ™ ^h^ vicinity of 
which were also the remains of the rhinoceros, 
trichorhinus, and reindeer. The superciliary ridges 
were very prominent in this specimen, and the 
frontal region was quite receding. A very primi- 
tive skull was also found at Marcilly-sur-Eure, 
Evreux district, which was exposed by a railway 
cutting, and which is now in the Dore-Deleute col- 
lection, Dreux. 

An inferior maxillary was found at Arcy-sur-Eure, 
Yonne, Grotte des Fees, which in some particulars 
resembles the Naulette jaw. Associated therewith 
were found rhinoceros teeth. 

In the cave of Mentone, Liguria, human remains 
have been found which are of a very primitive type, 
and with which were associated the remains of 
extinct animals which were contemporaneous with 
early man. 

At Eguisheim, near Colmar, a portion of a human 
skull was found in the year 1865 associated with the 
remains of the mastodon. The skull was quite long, 
with prominent superciliary ridges, and without 
doubt it is a very ancient specimen. 

From all of this evidence we see that primitive 
man was a savage being, living upon the products 
of the chase, and dwelling in the cavities of the 
rocks. His struggle for existence was severe, bat- 
tling on the one hand with the forces of nature and 
on the other with savage animals. Is it not truly 



TIME OF MAN S ORIGIN. 59 

wonderful that he should have survived? His suc- 
cess in this great struggle for life was not due to any 
physical development he alone possessed, apart from 
the development of his brain, because physically he 
was greatly inferior to many animals with which he 
was contemporaneous. Yet, when the struggle be- 
tween man and the ferocious beasts of prehistoric 
times began, man cam^e ofif the victor, and he doubt- 
less was an important factor in causing the extinc- 
tion of such species as were uncongenial to him. 
Man owes this success mainly to the superior de- 
velopment of his brain, and while the brain of 
primitive man w^as doubtless inferior to that of man 
of the present time, it was, nevertheless, sufficient 
to give him the great advantage as the principal 
actor in the drama of life. 

The number of years that have elapsed since man 
first became man in the evolutionary progress of the 
history of life is a question that cannot be answered; 
instead of considering years, we are compelled to 
recognize ages, each of which, from geological evi- 
dences, has probably occupied thousands of years. 
From geological and archaeological data, relative to 
this subject, the opinion held by the majority of 
anthropologists at the present time is that man 
originated from 50,000 to 100,000 years ago, and by 
some even a longer period of time is assigned. 

As early man differed in certain respects from his 
descendants of the present time, so do the living 
members of the human species differ to a lesser ex- 
tent from one another. We know that no tw^o indi- 
viduals are exactly alike in all particulars ; they 



6o THE SKELETON. 

may resemble one another in the color of the skin, 
in the height, or in some other respects, yet close 
examination is sure to reveal differences, and it is 
the study of these differences in man which forms 
the basis of the science of ethnology. In consider- 
ing the differences between the dift'erent members 
of the human family, it is advisable to consider the 
most pronounced characteristics presenting varia- 
tions first, and afterwards give attention to those 
which are less marked and usually less significant. 

Anatomical variations in all classifications are 
always considered to be of first importance, and to 
underlie all other variations, and in anthropology 
and ethnology there is no reason for departing from 
the zoological method v/hen it can be followed. 

The skeleton presents the mxost important varia- 
tions from the anthropological standpoint. The 
head, the trunk and the extremities all furnish some 
characters which vary in the different races of mzr. 

The skull has received the greatest attention and 
it furnishes the most reliable data in the compara- 
tive study of man. When we say that a certain 
race possesses a certain character of skull it must 
not be inferred that each and every member of that 
race has, without exception, a skull of the character 
designated, because such is not the case; there is 
ever present the tendency to variation, and our 
opinion is based upon the character of skull that 
predominates in the race under consideration; that 
is, our opinion is based upon that v\^hich is the rule, 
and not upon that which is the exception. Much 
confusion has arisen at times from not clearly 
recognizing this fact. 



THE SKULL. 6l 

The form of the cranium depends particularly on 
the length measured from front to back in relation 
to the breadth from side to side. The former con- 
stitutes the longitudinal diameter, and the latter, 
the transverse diameter. 

Considering loo to represent the longitudinal 
diameter of a skull, and 75 to represent the trans- 
verse diameter of the same skull, we would have 
the ratio of 75: ico, which represents quite a long 
skull. The ratio of 80:100 would represent a 
medium skull. The ratio of 85 : 100 would be found 
in a short skull. The long skull is said to be 
dolicho-cephalic ; the medium skull is ?neso-cephaltc; 
and the short skull is b^^achy-cephalzc. 

Certain characters are furnished by the examina- 
tion of the face, one of the most important of which 
is the nose. If the nasal aperture is broad, the 
nose is correspondingly broad and fiat; while if 
the nasal aperture is narrow, the nose is likewise 
narrow. The former is known as the leptorhmtan, 
and the latter is the platyrhinian. There may be 
a modification between these two, the medium, 
which is called the 7nesorhiman. 

The orbit of the eyes furnishes a character known 
as the orbital index. This index is the proportion 
of the vertical diameter of the orbit to the trans- 
verse diameter. In the Chinese this proportion is 
about 93: 100; while in the man of Cro-m.agnon it 
is about 61 : 100. 

In the Black race the whole face, and especially 
the maxillaries, projects forward. This character 
constitutes progiiathism. All individuals are to a 



62 THE ANGLES OF THE SKULL. 

certain extent prognathous; but when it is sHght, 
as in the White race, it is designated as orthogna- 
thism. 

The anatomist Peter Camper was induced to 
study the relative difference in the development of 
the face, by seeing the artists of his time represent 
negroes as whites painted black. Camper carefully 
studied the anatomical characters of the skull, and 
the result was the recognition of the facial angle 
which has subsequently been of such great value to 
craniologists. 

The facial angle is subtended by a line extending 
from the auditory canal to the root of the nose, and 
another line extending from the most prominent 
point of the foreherd to the nasal bone. This angle 
varies from about 70° to 80° in the different races 
of man. 

Another important angle is the maxillary angle, 
which is formed by a line from the most prominent 
point on the forehead to the most prominent point 
on the maxillaries, and another line from the most 
prominent point of the maxillaries to the most 
prominent point of the chin; these lines intersect 
and the angle formed varies in size from 140° to 
160°. 

The teeth are in many instances of value in the 
comparative study of man. In the savage races 
they are usually larger and stronger than they are 
in civilized man. Among some tribes the canine 
teeth are larger than among others. The third 
molar or ''wisdom teeth" are usually furnished 
with three separate fangs, or roots, among the dark- 



THE HAIR ON CROSS-SECTION. 63 

skinned races, while in the White race these teeth 
possess only two separate roots and are usually 
much smaller in size. 

In the trunk, the most important racial character- 
istic is found in the bones of the pelvis. The iliac 
bones in the Black races are more vertical in posi- 
tion than they are in the White race. Weber con- 
sidered that the shape of the inlet was a feature of 
racial importance; in the White race he considered 
it to be nearly oval; in the Yellow race, quadrilat- 
eral; in the Red race, round, and in the Black race, 
cuneiform. 

In the negro the arm is proportionally much 
longer than in the White. This character is quite 
constant and is due to the length of the bones of 
the forearm, the radius and ulna being longer than 
they are in the White race. 

At the lower end of the humerus is sometimes 
found the inter-condyloid foramen; it is more fre- 
quently observed in the lower races of man and in 
the bones of ancient man than it is in the living 
members of the higher races. 

Leaving the skeleton, we find that the remaining 
ethnic characters of especial importance are found 
in the hair and in the skin. A cross-section of the 
hair in the members of the different races presents 
several different outlines ; the diameter of the cross- 
section varies from about 25: 100 to about 90: 100, 
the more circular the section, the straighter the 
hair; while the flatter the outline, the more curly 
or wooly the hair. In the Chinese the hair shows 
on cross-section an almost perfect circle and the 



64 RACES OF MAN. 

hair is straight. In the negroes the cross-section 
departs greatly from the circular outline, and the 
hair is woolly. In the White race the hair is con- 
sidered to be wavy, and a cross-section reveals an 
outline between that of the Mongolian and the 
African. 

The color of the skin is recognized by all as being 
a valuable character in the study of mankind, and 
from this standpoint all of the races of man can be 
divided into four different groups, or races, as fol- 
lows : The Black or Negro of Africa ; the Yellow or 
Mongolian of Asia; the Red or Indian of North, 
Central and South America; and the White, com- 
monly known as the Caucasian, of Europe. 

In the large majority of cases the color serves as 
a valuable index to racial criteria; but, at the same 
time, as all tend to merge by almost imperceptible 
degrees into each other, it cannot be considered to 
be an infallible guide. Anthropologists that accept 
this classification based on color, use it not because 
it is an ideal one, for such is not the case, but 
simply because it is considered to be one of the best 
and most convenient available. Some investigators 
have, and with good reason, rejected giving to the 
American Indian the status of a race, contending 
that the differentiation is not sufficient to separate 
them from the Yellow or Mongolian race. 

In dividing mankind into these several groups, 
we, of course, recognize that all of them differ more 
or less from each other, i, e., they are not all equal, 
and, not being equal, it necessarily follows that 
some are superior, while others are inferior. The 



POLYGENISM AND MONOGENISM. 65 

race presenting the most marked characters resem- 
bHng primitive man, anatomical or otherwise^ is the 
lowest; and the race which has those characters 
most highly differentiated is the highest. Measured 
by these criteria, the White race is the highest and 
the Black race is the lowest. 

When we recognize the existence of the several 
different races of man, the question naturally arises 
as to whether these races are the descendants of one 
original race of man, or the descendants of several 
different primitive stocks. This question, especially 
in times gone by, has caused much difference of 
opinion among anthropologists. The Polygeitists, 
on the one side, consider that the differences be- 
tween the different races are the result of different 
origins ; and the Monogenists, on the other, believe 
that the living races of man are derived from one 
common primitive stock and that such dift'erences 
as they present are merely the result of environ- 
ment and other factors, such as those under which 
all organic forms live. The tendency of opinion of 
scientific men of the present time is to believe in 
the single origin of the human species. 

This question has at times had an important bear- 
ing on political matters when racial questions have 
been considered. Such was the case in the United 
States in the year 1844 during the administration 
of President Tyler. The Hon. John C. Calhoun 
was at the time Secretary of State, and was con- 
ducting diplomatic negotiations relative to the an- 
nexation of Texas. In quite a long controversy 
England continued to interfere with the institution 

5 



66 POLITICS AND RACIAL RELATIONSHIP. 

of negro slavery; and Mr. Calhoun, desiring to pre- 
sent as strong a case as possible for the custom of 
slavery, consulted two of the most prominent Amer- 
ican anthropologists of that time. These were Mr. 
George R. Gliddon and Dr. Samuel George Mor- 
ton, and with the aid of special volumes on the 
subject, furnished by the latter gentleman, he found 
that the races in the past had existed approximately 
in their present relationship to each other as far 
back as they could be traced, which was a period of 
at least 4,000 years, whether an original diversity 
of origins be admitted or not. Although there was 
objection by some to the introducing of scientific 
questions of a rather technical nature into dip- 
lomatic correspondence. Great Britain finally assured 
our government that it had no intention of meddling 
in our domestic affairs. 



CHAPTER II. 

THE BLACK (aFRICAN) RACE. 

Contents.— The characteristics of the race. Color of the skin. 
The hair. The skull. The jaws. The cheek bones. The 
nasal index. Stature. The branches of the race. The Ne- 
grillos. The Pigmies, their distribution and characteristics. 
The Akkas, the Wochua, the Andamanese, and the Batwa. 
The Hottentots, their distribution and characteristics. The 
Bushmen, their distribution and characteristics. The true 
Negroes. The Soudanese and their distribution. The Wolofs, 
the Serers, the Baniuns, the Mandingoes, and others. The 
Bantuas, their characteristics and distribution. The Zulus and 
the Kaffirs. The ability of the Negro. Slavery. Status of the 
race in America. 

THE Black race has from the earHest times in- 
habited the continent of Africa. The members 
of this race are in general identified by the color of 
their- skin, which is usually of a black, or blackish 
tint, som_etimes even being almost sooty black; it is 
velvety and cool to the touch and emits a distinct 
and very characteristic odor. 

The physiognomy of the Black is so decidedly 
characteristic that it is impossible not to recognize 
it even if the individual were not identified bv the 
color of the skin. 

The hair is jet black, and frizzly, or ''woolly;'' 
and on transverse section it exhibits an almost flat 
outline. 

The skull is usually dolichocephalic ; the jaws 
are prognathous ; the cheek bones are high ; the 

(67) 



68 GROUPS OF THE BLACK RACE. 

nose is broad and flat, and the lips are, as a rule, 
thick and to an extent everted. 

In stature the members of this race are generally 
somewhat above the average height, although there 
are a number of negro tribes below the average; 
they have a large bony frame, stout and robust, but 
proportionally weak in the lower extremities. 

The Black race may be divided into the following 
three different groups : The Negrillos, the Negj^oes 
and the Negroids. These groups in a general man- 
ner all possess the salient characteristics which 
distinguish the race, but in many of the minor 
characteristics they present considerable variation. 
Between these groups all degrees of intermediate 
variation can be recognized. 

The word Negrillo is derived from the Spanish 
and is the diminutive form of the word negro. The 
most important members of the negrillo branch are 
the Pig7nies, the Hottentots and the Bushmen, 

The Pigmies inhabit that portion of the African 
continent from about two or three degrees north of 
the equator southward into the region of the Congo 
River. 

Certain of the ancient writers, as Aristotle, Hero- 
dotus and Homer, made reference to dwarf tribes, 
but their accounts v\^ere considered mythical until 
recent times, when these little people were re-dis- 
covered by later explorers. The Pigmies were re- 
discovered by Schweinfurth, who found the Akkas 
inhabiting the region about 3° north latitude and 
25° east longitude. He was able to obtain one of 
these Akkas in exchange for one of his dogs, in- 



THE PIGMIES. 69 

tending to take him back to Europe, but at Berber, 
south of Khartoum, he died. Later travellers, as 
DuChaillu, Stanley, Emil Bey, and others, have seen 
and given descriptions of these people. The travel- 
ler Miani later obtained two young Akkas that were 
taken to Europe and which have since been most 
thoroughly studied by different anthropologists. 

The Pigmies vary in height from about 3 feet 4 
inches to slightly less than 5 feet. Except for the 
prominence of the abdom.inal region, they are well 
proportioned, remarkably agile, quite intelligent, 
and are daring and expert hunters. They are 
adepts in the use of the bow and arrow and the 
spear, and do not hesitate to attack the largest 
game, such as the buffalo and the elephant. It 
seems probable that at one time the Pigmies were 
much more numerous than they are at the present 
day, and that their populations w^ere more continu- 
ous. The other African tribes have encroached 
upon them and their final extinction seems almost 
inevitable. 

''They are in no sense a degraded race, fallen 
from a higher state," says Keane, ''but obviously a 
small people, arrested in their development, prob- 
ably by an adverse environment." 

According to De Quatrefages, the Pigmies are 
brachycephalic or sub-brachycephalic, while the 
Bushmen are dolichocephalic or sub-dolichocephalic, 
this being an anatomical character of considerable 
interest and importance. The various tribes of 
pigmy people, besides the Akkas, are the Wochtta, 
the Andamafiese, the Batwa, and others. The no- 
menclature regarding them is by no means uniform. 



70 THE HOTTENTOTS. 

South Africa is inhabited largely by the Hotten- 
tots and Bushmen. These two peoples to an extent 
have certain resemblances in common, but at the 
same time present such physical differences and 
also pursue such different modes of life that it be- 
comes probable that the relationship existing be- 
tween them is not as close as many anthropologists 
have previously supposed. 

Many anthropologists consider that the smaller 
African peoples, i, ^., the Pigmies, the Hottentots 
and the Bushmen, are probably the lineal descend- 
ants of the original inhabitants of the continent. 

It is considered by many that the Bushmen and 
Hottentots possibly occupied at one time during 
the remote past history of the human species the 
greater portion of South Africa from the Soudan to 
the Cape of Good Hope, and that they have grad- 
ually diminished in numbers and influence owing to 
the oppression of other African peoples from the 
north and later the Europeans in the south. This 
perhaps may have been the case, but the evidence 
of its truth is decidedly meagre. 

The word Hottentot signifies a stammerer, and 
w^as applied to these people in ridicule of the click- 
ing sounds of their words by the Dutch who founded 
Cape Colony in 1652. They call themiselves Khoii- 
Khoi, which signifies ''the men.'' They are still^ 
numerous in Cape Colony, constituting nearly one- 
seventh of the entire population. 

In height they average about 5 feet 4 or 5 inches; 
their hands and feet are small; the muscular de- 
velopment is poor ; the skull is dolichocephalic ; 



THE HOTTENTOTS. Jl 

the face is prognathic; the mouth is large, with 
thick protruding lips. An important characteristic 
found in the Hottentot women is the elongation of 
the labia minora, making the so-called '' Hottentot's 
apron.'' 

The Hottentots were said to be cattle breeders 
when they were first known to the Portuguese ; 
they also depended largely upon wild plants and 
roots, but gave little, if any, attention to agricul- 
ture. Their houses were built of sticks stuck into 
the ground, and then lashed together at the top and 
covered. Their clothing consisted of aprons and 
cloaks, and from motives of modesty the women 
wore fur caps. They made an intoxicating beverage 
from honey, and now drinking is quite a prevalent 
custom among them. Their weapons of warfare 
comprized spears, darts and shields for defense. 
They were conversant with the art of smelting iron 
ore and manipulating the metal. They were ac- 
customed to the use of oxen as beasts of burden 
from very early times. For purposes of cooking 
earthen vessels were used. 

It was formerly considered that they were entirely 
destitute of any religious sentiment, but such now 
hardly seems to be correct. They attribute super- 
natural powers to their ancestors, and invoke them 
on all serious matters. They bury their dead with 
great solemnity, and over the grave place heaps of 
stones, or cairns. Owing to these cairns the study 
of the distribution of these people has been greatly 
facilitated. Their religious deity is Tsunigoam ; 
they believe in a future life, perform certain religious 



'J2 THE HOTTENTOTS. 

ceremonies and say prayers. Some of them without 
doubt worshipped the moon which they regarded as 
being of the mascuHne gender. There were among 
them Shamans who were supposed to be able to 
exercise power over the elements and to be able to 
produce rain, or sunshine or cast out the spirits of 
disease at will. 

Beyond the British possessions and the Dutch 
republics each tribe has its own chief, but as their 
political organization is very loose, he possesses but 
little influence. 

With the progress of civilization the Hottentot 
tribes seem doomed to extinction. ''What has be- 
come of the Koranas, who had their camping 
grounds on the shores of the Table Bay when the 
first European colonists settled in the country, and 
of the Gri-Kwas (Griquas), who encamped farther 
north near St. Helena Bay?" says Reclus. ''Many 
other tribal groups, such as the Gauri, San, Atta, 
Haisse, Sussi, Dama, Dun, and Shirigri, have also 
disappeared, leaving no memory behind them ex- 
cept the names given by them to their rivers and 
mountains." 

Many of the Hottentot tribes still resisting Eng- 
lish civilization have withdrawn northward ; and 
it seems that the most undesirable of them have 
remained. The Hottentot of the present time at 
Cape Colony, on the whole, seems to have the repu- 
tation of possessing more vices and fewer virtues 
than any people known. He hates work of any 
kind. He loves rum and tobacco, and frequently 
indulges in the smoking of dacha, or hemp. Added 
to all of these is his extreme filthiness. 



THE BUSHMEN. 73 

Dwelling in the region of the great Kalibari 
Desert are the Bushmen. In some particulars they 
resemble the Hottentots very closely. In stature 
the Bushmen average about 4 feet 8 inches. They 
are hunters and depend largely on the bow and 
arrow, sometimes making use of the poisoned arrow. 
They make their clothing out of the skins of wild 
animals. Their dwelling-places are in caves, or in 
rudely constructed abodes made by bending the 
foliage of the bushes into a sort of nest, for which 
reason they have received the appellation of Bush- 
men. According to Reclus, however, in the terri- 
tory occupied by these people numerous woody 
plants from 4 to 8 feet in height abound, having a 
dull green or bluish foliage. This is the so-called 
bush country of the English and the inhabitants 
have hence been designated as Bushmen. They 
call themselves Khui. By the Hottentots they are 
called San. 

The earliest account of the Bushmen was given 
by Simon van der Stell, the Dutch governor of the 
Colony, in the year 1685. In his narrative he gives 
a description of a people that would apparently 
apply to the Bushmen of the present time. ''They 
carried," says that writer, according to Prichard, 
'' bows and arrows and assagays, possessed no cattle, 
and subsisted on wild honey and the game which 
they shot. Their abodes, or rather places of wan- 
dering, were along a stream which flowed from the 
Gricqua Mountains, falling into the Olifant River." 

The Bushmen have a yellowish complexion, which 
has in some instances been compared to that of the 



74 THE BUSHMEN. 

Mongolian. They also resemble them in certain 
other respects, such as the small black eyes, the 
broad and prominent cheek bones, the contour of 
the mouth and chin, and the regular and white 
teeth. They differ from the Mongolian in having a 
dolichocephalic skull, and a forehead which bulges 
out, instead of the brachycephalic skull and reced- 
ing forehead of the Asiatics. While the cranial 
capacity is below the average, the general develop- 
ment does not indicate any lack of intelligence. 

One of the curious physical characteristics of the 
Bushmen is the great number of wrinkles covering 
the whole body, the skin apparently being too large 
for the frame; this condition is corrected, however, 
under a more liberal diet. Like the Hottentot, the 
beard is scanty, and the body is almost entirely 
hairless. 

The Bushmen represent a people that are degen- 
erating. They seem to have no social organization. 
They wander around in small bands without any 
regular chief, and family ties are very loose. In 
some respects, however, the Bushmen are superior 
to the neighboring tribes, as their rock drawings 
show a considerable degree of intelligence, and their 
folklore is quite extensive. They have been greatly 
persecuted by the other native tribes, as well as by 
the Dutch Boers, who have gone so far as to deny 
that they possessed articulate speech, and under 
such environment it is probable that they will not 
be able to survive long. 

The ethnic relationship existing between the 
Hottentots and the Bushmen is not clearly under- 



THE TRUE NEGRO. 75 

stood ; there certainly seems to be, however, some 
relationship between them, but probably not a very 
close one. 

The true negroes form a majority of the popula- 
tion of Africa, but in reality occupy less than half of 
the land. Their habitat being from the Sahara 
southward to the region inhabited by the Hotten- 
tots and the Bushmen, and from the Atlantic to the 
Indian Ocean. Adjoining regions are occupied by 
tribes presenting distinct variations from the true 
negro type. 

Of the various classifications of the negro peoples 
none have been generally accepted by ethnologists. 
Conflicting and inaccurate names of tribes have 
been given by various travelers, so that at present 
anything like a systemiatic arrangement is almost 
impossible. 

By some physiologists it is alleged that the blood 
of the negro is thicker and has fewer red corpuscles 
than are found in the blood of the members of the 
white race. The temperament is not so sensitive as 
that of the white race. They do not suffer from 
surgical operations to the extent that Europeans 
do. The negroes seem to possess some immunity 
to typhoid and other fevers, cancer, croup and den- 
tal caries. They are especially susceptible to disease 
of the pulmonary system and, also, to bilious and 
cutaneous diseases. 

It was a mistake of the earlier ethnologists to as- 
sociate with the negro everything that was brutal 
and beastlike. His capacity for improvement was 
doubted, and even his position as man was some- 
times questioned. 



76 THE NEGRO PEOPLES. 

From a linguistic standpoint the negroes are 
divided into two groups, the Soudanese and the 
Ba7ttuas. 

The Soudanese, as the name signifies, inhabit the 
region known as the Soudan, which stretches south 
from the Sahara, from the Atlantic Ocean to the 
Red Sea. From the earhest times this region has 
been recognized as the real home of the true 
negroes. In this territory there have been found 
many individuals and even tribes that are said to be 
almost black in color. From this hue all grada- 
tions in the complexion of the skin occur, some of 
the lighter shades being of a mulatto color. 

The nations of this region are divided into many 
different tribes, and are known by various names. 
They have been grouped mainly by the languages 
spoken. 

Between the Gambia and the Senegal Rivers dwell 
the Wolofs, one of the finest tribes of the negro 
race. The significance of the name Wolof has oc- 
casioned some discussion, which is quite interesting, 
as there is some difference of opinion as to whether 
it means '' Talkers " or '' Blacks." In color they are 
certainly very dark, and have been referred to as the 
''blackest of the black." In the Cape Verde region 
are the Severs, In the coast region are also found 
the Barduns. The Mandingoes^ which are an im- 
portant negro nation, inhabit the region from^ 
Upper Guinea on the south to Timbuctoo ; this is 
the most important nation of the Western Soudan, 
and has many branches. It is extremely difficult to 
decide just what tribes should be considered as be- 



THE NEGRO PEOPLES. "Jj 

longing to this group, as the alleged members pre- 
sent all variations from the true negro to the 
negroid. The Kassoitke, Jallouke^ Sofiinke^ Vei, 
Bambara and others are generally considered to 
belong to them. 

Along the course of the Niger River dwell many 
petty kingdoms, and also some of considerable 
magnitude. Sansandig is said by Brinton to have a 
population of 30,000 inhabitants, and Timbuctoo, 
20,000. These natives are mostly hunters and war- 
riors, but give, hovx^ever, considerable attention to 
agriculture, and through intercourse with the 
Arabs, carry on considerable commerce. They 
have largely accepted the Moham.medan religion. 

The natives of Guinea are mostly savages ; they 
have greatly deteriorated, and all attempts to civi- 
lize them up to the present time seem to have 
failed. This is well illustrated by the history of 
the people of the Republic of Liberia, who have 
not only failed to make any impression towards 
civilizing the aboriginal inhabitants, but who themi- 
selves are rapidly, from all accounts, relapsing into 
barbarism. 

The many natives of this region are comprised in 
many small groups, each with its own distinctive 
name, v/hich, as a rule, has no ethnic value, and 
which is subject to variation, owing to admixture 
with other groups of peoples. 

In pre-Mohammedan times many of these natives 
were devil worshipers, and where these views still 
prevail the natives assemble at some spot held in 
special veneration and make an animal sacrifice to 
appease the evil spirit. 



78 THE NEGRO PEOPLES. 

Along the Beneri River dwell the Bolo, Yaco and 
Mistri tribes. Living along the Shari River are the 
Bashirmi, In the region of Lake Tchad are many 
different tribes, among which are the Moitgu, the 
Yedina and the Kuri, Near Kordofan are the 
Nubas; dwelling on both sides of the Nile, between 
the first and second cataracts, are the Barabras. 
Along the Welle are the Mombuttu and the Zan- 
dah, both of which are cannibals. 

Between the Niger and the Bornon rivers the 
Hausa language is spoken which in its words ex- 
pressing number shows some relationship to the 
ancient Egyptian. 

There are many other tribes of more or less im- 
portance scattered at various points throughout the 
Soudan, but it seems hardly advisable to mention 
more of them here. Whenever we approach the 
border line of the Soudan in any direction, influ- 
ences from the other races become clearly recog- 
nized in the physical characters of the negro, plainly 
showing that the contact with other peoples has 
resulted in modifying the coal-black color of the 
skin to a perceptibly lighter hue. 

The Bantu peoples, while mainly negro in char- 
acter, present certain characteristics which make 
them differ from the true negro type, and are hence 
referred to as negroids. 

These Bantu negroids are usually of a lighter 
color than the negro, although all intermediate hues 
are found among them ; they have a larger cranial 
capacity and are not so prognathic. They are more 
intelligent than the pure negro, and are more civi- 



THE NEGRO PEOPLES. 79 

ilized. The Bantu negroids are a mixed people, 
the ethnic elements entering into their composition 
being, on the one hand, largely negro, and, on the 
other, to a lesser extent, Semitic and Hamitic influ- 
ences. 

They inhabit many portions of Africa south of the 
equator, extending to the territory occupied by the 
Hottentots and the Bushmen. 

One of the most important divisions of the Bantu 
group are the Zulus, which name is now generally 
applied to an aggregation of tribes or clans all con- 
spicuous for their physical and intellectual develop- 
ment. The Zulu men are brave warriors, and enjoy 
field sports. Polygamy has been practised by them 
from time immemorial, and the marriage with the 
twentieth wife is considered as binding as where 
monogamy prevails. As a people, the Zulus thus 
far seem to have avoided the evils of drunkenness 
and crime, and their morality is considered excep- 
tional. They pursue mainly a pastoral life, and 
their art is limited to the making of iron imple- 
ments, pottery and various ornaments of copper, 
ivory, horn and wood. In the region of the Cam- 
eroons are the Bayon, the Basa, the Abo and the 
Barombi peoples. 

Separated from the Zulus by the Drakensberg 
Mountains are the Bechuana, who are probably 
related to the Hottentots; they are divided into the 
Eastern Bechuana and the Western Bechuana. 
North of these people, in the upper basin of the 
Zambesi River, dwell the Barotse, a people who 
are considered to be related to the Zulus. 



80 THE NEGRO PEOPLES. 

In the southeastern region are Kaffirs ; they are 
a people of magnificent physical development and 
are to an extent agricultural in their habits, al- 
though in the main they are warlike and many of 
them are said to be cannibals. They do not form 
a united group of people, but are split up into a 
number of tribes, and the color of their skin varies 
from a light brown to black. The Kaffirs practice 
polygamy, but the wives are of unequal rank. 
They are a superstitious people and make sacrifices 
to appease evil spirits on every hand. They con- 
sider that snakes represent ancestral forms and con- 
sequently treat them with considerable respect. 
They believe most sincerely in witchcraft, and the 
witch-doctor of the tribe is a man of great import- 
ance. 

They also possess large herds of cattle, which 
comprise their main wealth, and which constitute 
what might be termed their currency. Even their 
wives are said to be measured by this medium of 
exchange, an '^ average'' wife being said to be worth 
eight cows. 

The Congo region is occupied largely by these 
Bantu tribes, which linguistically are related, but in 
physical characteristics present considerable varia- 
tion and differ from the Negroes proper in the 
color, features, shape of the skull, and in the gen- 
eral development of their physique, although all 
intermediate gradations may at times be observed. 
From forty to fifty distinct idioms of Bantu speech 
in this region have been recognized, but as yet 
sufficient material has not been collected to afiford 



THE NEGRO PEOPLES. 8l 

anything like a satisfactory classification of the 
Bantu peoples of this region; the Nyamezi dwell 
to the east and the Rita to the west of Tanganyika. 
The Reggas occupy portions of the country between 
the Congo and Lake Mutes Nzige, and the Ba-Lolo 
are found along the banks of the Congo where it 
makes its great curve. Other peoples inhabiting 
this region are the Ba-Ngala^ the Bu-Banght, the 
Wa-Buma, and the Ba-Frot more generally known 
as the Congolese, 

The territory of the Zambesi, and the region of 
Lakes Tanganyika and Victoria Nyanza is also 
largely populated by Bantu tribes. 

The languages spoken by these Bantu negroids 
have a large number of roots in common, which are 
modified into words by pecuhar defining prefixes. 

Owing largely to the savage wars that the 
African populations have been continually waging 
since the country was first known to Europeans, the 
ethnic relationships of the different peoples have 
been greatly obscured, and attempts at accurate 
classification seem wellnigh hopeless of yielding 
satisfactory results. Constant intermingling of the 
different tribes has occurred, and the ethnologist 
is compelled of necessity to depend upon linguistic 
classifications in his attempts to obtain order out 
of this chaotic condition. 

Among both the Negro and the Bantu peoples 
the village is the political unit; it is generally gov- 
erned by a chief, who is advised by a council of the 
older or most able men of the village. Ruling over 
several of these villages is another chief or king, 
6 



82 THE NEGRO CHARACTER. 

who stands much higher in authority. The king 
generally dwells in the largest of the villages that 
come under his jurisdiction. In the centre of each 
village there is usually a council house, where the 
people of the village congregate on various occa- 
sions. Each master of a household usually has as 
many houses or huts as he possesses wives. 

The true negro is of a cheerful disposition, and 
so long as his immediate necessities are provided 
for is not easily depressed. Negro children are fre- 
quently quite bright and intelligent, and until the 
age of twelve or fourteen years is reached, learn 
quite readily; but at this time a change usually 
occurs, progress apparently ceases, the intellect 
seems to become cloudy and the characteristic in- 
dolent nature of the negro manifests itself. This 
may perhaps be explained by the fact that the 
cranial sutures in the negro skull close, and con- 
sequently retard brain development, at an earlier 
period than in the White race. So long as the 
negro is aided and encouraged by the white man, 
he seems to succeed, but when he loses this assist- 
ance he gradually relapses towards his primitive 
condition, as he has done in Liberia and Hayti. 

Without the aid of other races no negro people 
have ever reduced their language to a written form. 

Architecture was not in the slightest manner de- 
veloped by any pure negro people; and they did 
not, except when brought under other influences, 
build even walls of stone. In the working of iron 
and copper they have shown some ability, as the 
art of smelting iron ore and making it into imple- 



NEGRO SLAVERY. 83 

ments and weapons is quite generally understood 
by the native tribes of the African continent. In 
all portions of this country travellers have found 
the natives in the so-called iron age. By means of 
their rudely constructed bellows they are said to be 
able to raise quite an intense heat, and the metal 
smelted is sometimes of quite a fine quality, so that 
many of the natives prefer their own iron utensils 
rather than those of foreign make. 

Some ethnologists have gone so far as to con- 
sider that the knowledge of iron-working was intro- 
duced into Europe from Africa owing to the ability 
of the natives in this particular. There is, however, 
no evidence to ofifer in support of this contention, 
and therefore it cannot be considered true. 

In the arts of weaving, pottery-making and agri- 
culture they possess considerable knowledge and 
skill. 

From early times negro slavery has existed; the 
Carthaginians probably brought slaves from North 
Africa, and for a long time slave trade has been 
carried on by the Arabs. 

The discovery of America gave impetus to slavery, 
and nearly all European countries afforded to it legal 
recognition. Between the years 1680 and 1700, 
England exported at least 300,000 slaves from Africa, 
and between the years 1700 and 1786, imported into 
Jamaica over 600,000 slaves. In the year 1808, 
slave trade was declared illegal by Great Britain, 
and other nations gradually followed the same 
course. France emancipated its negroes in the 
year 1848. In Brazil, slavery existed until the year 
1888. 



84 NEGRO POPULATION. 

In the year i860, according the census, there were 
in the United States 3,953,760 slaves, and it was 
not until after a most cruel war that slavery ceased 
to exist here. 

As a result of this pernicious system of human 
slavery, we now have in the United States about 
9,000,000 negroes; they are no longer slaves, but 
are now given the same legal status as the whites. 
The equality of the two races has been established 
on paper, but to the anthropologist it is only on 
paper that this equality exists. Measured by all 
anthropological criteria, the black is greatly the 
inferior of the white, and, according to the principle 
of the survival of the fittest, the negro must inevit- 
ably succum.b in the struggle for existence if he is 
compelled to endeavor to maintain a position equal 
with that of the whites in a civilization for which he 
is not prepared. 



CHAPTER III. 

THE YELLOW (aSIAn) RACE. 

Contents. — The physical characteristics of the race. The orig- 
inal home of the race and its distribution. The Sinitic and 
Sibiric branches. The Chinese, their culture, their language 
and their religion. The Thibetans. The Indo-Chinese or the 
Thibeto-Indo-Chinese. The Tunguses. The Kalmucks. The 
Tartars. The Turks. The Finns. The Lapps, or Lapland- 
ers. The Chukchis. The Namollos. The Kamschatkans. 
The Giliaks. The Aleutians. The Ainos. The Japanese, 
their physical characteristics, their origin and their culture. 

THE characteristic presented by the Yellow or 
Mongolian race, in which it differs mainly 
from the other races of mankind, is the color of 
the skin, which is of a yellowish tint, blending at 
times to an olive shade; the hair is usually black, 
coarse and of a dull lustre, and in outline on trans- 
verse section, is circular; the beard is scanty or 
absent, the mustache being usually proportionally 
more developed. The skull generally exhibits the 
meso- or brachycephalic type; the cheek bones are 
prominent; the eyes are of the so-called oblique 
variety; the nose, is small and concave; and, on the 
whole, the features presented by the face may be 
described as being broad. These characteristics are 
also presented in the main by the Red race, which 
tends to make the argument in favor of the Mon- 
golian origin of the American aborigines very 
strong. Asia is considered by nearly all ethnolo- 
gists to be the original home of the Yellow race. 

(85) 



86 THE DIVISIONS OF THE YELLOW RACE. 

The Yellow race, from their original home, at 
times considerably extended their geographical dis- 
tribution. Evidence of their presence in Mesopo- 
tamia has been found, and, while they penetrated 
into Europe, they did not, so far as is known, ever 
reach Africa. Portions of the race helped to furnish 
the populations of Japan, Malaysia, Australasia 
and Polynesia. That they reached the continent 
of America probably by way of Behring Strait can- 
not well be doubted, as travel to and fro by the 
inhabitants of the two continents at this point has 
occurred as long as we have had any knowledge of 
these regions. 

The Yellow race may be divided into two 
branches, conforming in a general manner to their 
geographical distribution. The first of these has 
been designated by Brinton to be the Sinitic, which 
includes the people of China and Farther India; 
and the other the Sibiric, the geographical distri- 
bution of which is embraced in the region north of 
the Altai Mountains and the Caspian and Black 
Seas, and extending from the Pacific to the Atlantic 
Ocean. 

The first group included in the Sinitic branch are 
the Chinese, which, while a mixed people, constitute 
one of the most definite varieties of mankind. In 
the various provinces, from Canton to the Great 
Wall, a large number of types are found which 
present, in some instances, marked contrasts to each 
other. The general characteristic which runs 
through all is their common culture rather than 
any particular racial character. 



THE CULTURE OF THE CHINESE. 87 

In the evolution of society the people of China 
have passed through essentially the same phases of 
development as the people of Europe. China has 
had its paleolithic and neolithic stone ages. The 
western archaeologists consider that weapons were 
first made of wood, next of stone, and finally of 
metal. While the Chinese have thus passed through 
many of the successive stages of development that 
the White race has, this development is usually 
arrested and falls far short of the perfection that is 
accomplished by the White race. 

The culture of the Chinese, while old, is without 
doubt not as ancient as it has been reputed to be, 
although some four thousand years ago while the 
Europeans were still barbarians China had its liter- 
ature and written history. The records preserved by 
the Chinese in their annals constitute one of the 
most important and complete histories ever made by 
any people; they treat largely of political events and 
record observations relating to natural phenomena. 
They were familiar with the power of the magnet to 
point to the north as early as 121 A. D., but utilized 
this knowledge by applying it to toys instead of to 
navigation. They probably invented movable type 
as early as the eleventh century, but never utilized 
this knowledge, so far as is known, for the purpose 
of printing. They made gunpowder long before 
the Europeans, but used it mainly for the manufac- 
ture of fire-crackers. From remote periods in their 
history they have domesticated cattle, but, it is main- 
tained, do not milk their cows. ^.The Chinese people 
always seem to have just fallen short of accomplish- 



88 THE LANGUAGE OF THE CHINESE. 

ing great ends. Had they utilized the powers they 
possessed in the compass and in gunpowder their 
present status among the nations of the world would 
probably have been different from what it is to-day. 
They have originality, but the capacity for develop- 
ment seems to be lacking, and, for this reason, their 
ability to succeed has been correspondingly dimin- 
ished. This is considered by anthropologists to be 
due probably to arrested development. The China- 
man may be said to be pre-eminently practical, de- 
void almost entirely of theory; and without theory 
progress is wellnigh impossible. 

The Chinese still retain a primitive form of 
speech. Their dialects comprise a small number of 
monosyllabic roots. From these roots thousands 
of meanings are evolved by the different tones in 
which the root words are pronounced. The natives 
of the different provinces are unable to communicate 
orally together, but by their ideographic system of 
writing they are able to understand one another. 
This system of writing is also understood in Korea, 
Japan, Annam and Siam. 

The religion of the Chinese consisted originally 
in the worship of the objects and forces of nature. 
All natural phenomena were supposed to be the re- 
sult of the labors of good or evil spirits, and to 
these they offered up prayer and sacrifice. Their 
supreme diety was Tien, or Heaven ; Ti, or Earth, 
constituted another deity, and from the union of 
these two all nature resulted. The dominating re- 
ligions of China at the present time are those of the 
Buddhists, Taoists and the followers of Confucius. 



CONFUCIUS. 89 

They give very little attention to the tenets of these 
different religious systems, the same individual fre- 
quently accepting all, as does the Emperor. 

The great philosopher, Confucius, who lived from 
551 B. C. to 479 B. C, has always been appreciated 
by the better classes in China. Confucianism has 
frequently been called a system of morality without 
religion. He devoted his teaching to the practical 
side of life and excluded almost altogether the 
supernatural element; his position on many ques- 
tions was that of the agnostic. ''How,'' he asks, 
''should I pretend to know anything about heaven 
since it is so difficult to clearly understand what 
takes place on earth? You have not yet learned to 
live and you already rave about what may happen to 
you after death," said he. He dwelt on the duties 
of man to man, to his superiors, and to the State. 
The influences wielded by the teachings of Confucius 
in China have been very great; he has there been 
recognized as the "teacher of the nation." 

Buddhism was introduced into China about 200 
B. C, and about 300 years later it received the offi- 
cial recognition of the Emperor. It has nominally 
since become the national religion, and is accepted 
in a general way by the majority of the population. 
The real significance of this system is, however, but 
poorly understood by the Chinese. 

The Mohammedans have considerable influence 
in China, it having been estimated, according to 
Reclus, that at present there are at least 20,000,000 
of that faith. 

The Chinese people may be said to be, as a rule, 



90 THE CUSTOMS OF THE CHINESE. 

good-natured, reserved and courteous, and in cer- 
tain respects seem to possess some very commend- 
able qualities. It is said that drunkards are but 
rarely seen on their streets, and exhibitions of vio- 
lence are exceptional. In the school-room the chil- 
dren show great obedience to their teacher and 
apply themselves industriously to their studies. 
They are, to an extent, bright and cheerful, but, 
nevertheless, possess a seriousness beyond their 
years. They exhibit an aspect of dignity which is 
preserved throughout life. This is also a character- 
istic feature of the American Indian. The family 
group constitutes the most important feature of 
Chinese society. At one time the whole nation was 
known as the ''hundred families." Their moral 
system is based mainly on the respect of the chil- 
dren to their parents, especially the father. The 
merits of the individual occupy a secondary position 
to the merits of the family, and, as a rule, it is the 
family alone that exerts any political power. It is, 
however, the father that expresses the sentiments 
of the family; whatever his opinion is, is expected 
to be accepted by his family as final and correct. 
He receives honor and credit for the virtues of the 
family, but is also held responsible for its faults. 
The heroic acts of the children ennoble the family 
and the entire line of ancestry; and, on the other 
hand, any crimes committed bring disgrace upon 
the entire family and their whole ancestral line. 

Their funeral ceremonies are quite elaborate, and 
the family, especially the children, are expected to 
give public exhibition of their grief. Incense is 



THE CUSTOMS OF THE CHINESE. 9I 

burnt in memory of the dead, and he is suppHed 
with fictitious paper money and also clothes, horses 
and servants, also made of paper, and whatever else 
is supposed to be required by the departed in the 
other world. During the period of mourning, 
which lasts for three years, the mourners do not 
attend public gatherings, and are said to abstain 
from meat and wine. When possible, the dead are 
finally deposited in the places of their nativity. In 
the month of May of each year the graves are visited 
and offerings of various kinds, as fruits and flowers, 
are made. In these ceremonies age is always given 
precedence over rank. When children, bachelors 
and women die, the ceremonies are much less elab- 
orate. The bodies of infants among the poorer 
classes are frequently left along the banks of streams. 
Infanticide, especially of female children, is, to some 
extent, practiced among the poor. 

The women occupy a very inferior position in 
Chinese society, and among them artificial deformity 
of the feet is practiced. At the age of about five or 
six years the feet are bound up in such a manner 
that growth is materially interfered with and con- 
siderable deformity is the result, which impairs the 
individual for life. This deformity is considered in 
Chinese society to be a special mark of distinction. 

The wife is practically the slave of her husband, 
and absolute submission to his will is required. 
The husband may select his concubines and the 
wife is compelled to receive them. The right of 
divorce is limited to the husband, who may dismiss 
his wife at will, or if he so desires may sell her. 



92 THE THIBETANS. 

Marriage is performed with various and elaborate 
ceremonies. 

Numerous brotherhoods, or secret societies, exist 
among the Chinese, and exercise great influence; 
and from them the various insurrections usually 
originate. One of the most important of these 
societies is that of the Taipings, which waged such 
a formidable rebellion from the years 185 1 to 1865, 
and which, had it been successful, would have occu- 
pied an important position in the history of China. 

The natives of the great Thibetan plateau and 
the adjoining regions are known as the Thibetans^ 
and constitute the next group of the Sinitic branch 
of the Yellow race. 

The greater portion of Thibet still remains un- 
explored. The Thibetans possess the characteristic 
Mongolic physical type. They are well spoken of 
by travellers, who consider them a quiet, frank and 
dignified people. They are physically well developed 
and are brave; they are fond of music and dancing, 
but lack energy and enterprise. The Thibetans 
have for a long time been in their present state of 
civilization. In some localities many of the natives 
are able to read and write, and books are said to be 
found in many of their homes. Their language in 
evolutionary development is considered to have 
passed that of the Chinese; their dialects are numer- 
ous, and greatly differ from each other in different 
portions of the country. 

The rehgion of the Thibetans is Buddhism, which 
was early introduced among them. Many monas- 
teries and convents have been built in various por- 



THE INDO-CHINESE. 93 

tions of the country, and numerous priests find 
employment; it has been estimated that there is one 
monk to every family. 

These people are pastoral, and to a lesser extent 
agricultural ; milk, butter and barley meal consti- 
tute the most important articles of food among 
them. 

Polygamy and polyandry are practiced in Thibet, 
and yet from the testimony of travelers it seems 
that matrimonial difficulties are not more numerous 
here than in other countries. In Farther India and 
Cochin-China the natives present certain character- 
istics, as wavy hair, which seem to indicate a mixed 
descent, and which have been termed the Indo- 
Chinese or the Thibeto-Indo- Chinese subdivision. 
This constitutes the last group of the Sinitic branch. 
The natives of Burma, Siam, Annam and Cochin- 
China are here included. 

The first group of the Sibiric branch are the 71^;^- 
guseSy that inhabit portions of Siberia, from the Sea 
of Okhotsk to Jenissia and to the Arctic Ocean. It 
has been estimated that 60,000 to 70,000 of them 
inhabit Siberia. Some of them have adopted Rus- 
sian ways; but most of them are hunters, wandering 
through the forests, sometimes without tents, and 
obtaining shelter in natural caves and in the trunks 
of trees. They are good woodsmen and their keen- 
ness in the forest is excelled, by probably only the 
North American Indians; various signs and marks 
totally unintelligible to others are used effectually 
as methods of communication among them. These 
people have many curious traits, as for example, 



94 THE KALMUCKS. 

when a woman is confined in labor she immediately 
seeks seclusion in the forest, and alone and unaided 
she there gives birth to her child even though she 
die. The new-born infant is given the name of the 
first stranger that crosses a burning brand at the 
threshold. The dead are not buried, but with the 
head pointing west are placed in the branches of 
trees. They make important use of the reindeer, 
using its flesh for food, the skin for clothing, and 
the bones for various implements. The Tunguses 
make their tents, cradles and baskets from the bark 
of the birch tree, and travellers describe them as 
possessing marked hospitality. 

The Kalmucks or Western Mongols inhabit the 
region of Znngzri^, around Koko-nor in Northeast 
Thibet; in the Ordus region of the Yellow River of 
China; and in the steppes between the Don and the 
Volga and the Caspian. They are nomads, and 
depend mainly on the raising of large herds of 
cattle. Their language is more phonetic than that 
of the Eastern Mongolian. These wandering people 
are good horsemen, and some of them breed and 
break in camels; they are a tricky people and resort 
to fraud and theft where it serves their purposes to 
do so. 

Their villages are found on the lonely steppes and 
their habitations are made of tents which have been 
described by M. Vereschagnine as containing, in 
much confusion, boxes, lassoes, saddles and other 
odds and ends. A rudely constructed hearth serves 
as a place for them to build their fire. In the sum- 
mer their clothing is meagre, and during their cold 



THE TARTARS. 95 

and bleak winters they remain as much as possible 
huddled together in their tents. 

The Tartars comprise certain tribes of mixed 
origin inhabiting Tartary, Siberia and the Russian 
Steppes. The word Tartar has no fixed ethnologi- 
cal significance. 

The modern anthropologists consider that the 
Turks were originally members of the Yellow race, 
although the modern Turk, through constant inter- 
mingHngs with the Semitic peoples, possesses at the 
present time many of the characteristics of the 
White race. The Turks are, in general, a tall, 
robust set of men, with a tawny or swarthy com- 
plexion, with a rough but frequently handsome 
physiognomy. They include a large number of 
ethnic groups some of which present marked differ- 
ences as to life and language. 

The most important group of people belonging 
to the Turks are the Osnianles whose descendants 
are at the present time the rulers of European and 
Asiatic Turkey. The tendency to nomadic life is 
still strong among these people. Their present 
physical characteristics present many affinities to 
those of the White race, but modern anthropolo- 
gists are quite agreed that originally they came from 
the Yellow race. 

The Yakuts occupy an extensive area radiating 
from Yakatak, which to the south is covered with 
lofty mountains, and to the west and north extends 
a plain interspersed with thick and bushy trees. 
The region is well supplied with numerous streams 
which are navigated by the natives in bark canoes 



96 THE TURCOMANS AND THE NOGAIANS. 

and boats capable of holding two or three persons. 
For traveling over the land the reindeer is used. 
The Yakuts have been estimated numerically to 
comprise about two hundred thousand. They are a 
stout, well built people, in stature being of about 
medium height. They are an active, intelligent, 
and peaceful people, and travelers speak highly of 
their hospitality. They are fond of their wine and 
tobacco, although if necessary their power of diet- 
etic endurance is great. It is claimed that a Yakut 
is able to work- three or four days without food or 
drink; to the writer, however, this seems to be a 
physiological impossibility and absurd. The wealth 
of a Yakut is estimated in proportion to the num- 
ber of cattle he possesses. 

The Turcomans are a wandering people, inhabit- 
ing the steppes of Turkestan, Persia, and Afghan- 
istan, and to the west they are found as far as 
Anatolia. The tribes dwelling in the latter region 
have in the main many of the physical characteris- 
tics of the White Race. The Turcomans are mostly 
Mohammedans. They are inveterate slave-dealers, 
and in spite of their religious inclinations they will 
traffic in the followers of the ''Prophet'' as readily 
as they will in those of the ''unbelievers." These 
people are also very much devoted to the raising 
and racing of fine horses. 

The Nogaians are supposed to have been a once- 
powerful people on the shores of the Black Sea, but 
which have since lost power and prestige, and are 
now variously scattered among other peoples be- 
tween the Volga river and the Caucasian mountains, 



THE KIRGHIZ AND THE FINNS. 97 

many of them still remaining have been described as 
being of a very peaceful disposition and much de- 
voted to the pursuits of agriculture, and others of 
them are said to be still nomadic tribes. 

The Kirghiz are a nomadic people inhabiting the 
frontiers of Russia and China, and are found at 
various points from Lake Baikal to the boarders of 
the steppes of Siberia. In stature these people are 
described as below the medium; their physiogomy is 
that of the yellow race in general, and is described 
by European travellers as being ''ugly." They are 
much devoted to their horses and almost always 
travel on horseback, thoroughly armed, and even 
prepared for war or for the chase. At the town of 
Shouraiahan many sedentary Kirghiz reside, and 
this serves as a market-place where most of the 
buying and selling occurs. Others are the Uighurs, 
the Uzbeks, the Kumuks, and the Karakalpaks, all 
of them different branches of the Turkish people; 
the languages spoken by them show remarkable 
uniformity. 

The Finns extend from the Baltic Sea to the Obi. 
They are regarded to be the remains of a people 
once probably much more numerous than at the 
present time. They are of Mongolic origin, but 
have assimilated to a great extent the characteristics 
of the European. They are mainly hunters and 
husbandmen. A number of different branches of 
the Finnish people are recognized, among them be- 
ing the Ostiaks, dwelling on the right bank of the 
Obi, and the Vogouls, on the eastern slopes of the 
Northern Urals. The Finns of Siberia comprise in 

7 



98 THE LAPPS. 

the south the Teleouts, the Sagdis and the Kachintz, 
They devote most of their time to hunting, fishing 
and agriculture, and are subjects of the Russian 
Empire. 

In Eastern Russia the Baskirs, the Teptiars, and 
the Metscheriaks belong to the Finns. The first of 
these are the most numerous, they speak dialects 
which vary much in the different districts inhabited 
by them, but which, in the main, may be said to be 
composed of mainly Turkish and Finnish words 
with some Russian. 

The Finns inhabiting the region of the Baltic Sea 
have long been under the rule of the Teutonic peo- 
ples, and hence their characteristics and customs 
have become greatly obscured; among them are 
the Ltvontans, the EsthonianSy the Ischortans, the 
KyridSy the Ymes, and the Qtiatnes, 

The Finns of Siberia may be divided into two 
groups : one occupying the south and the other the 
north. In the former group belong the Teleouts, 
etc. In the northern group belong the Ostiaks 
and Vogouls, The Ostiaks dwell mainly along the 
banks of the Obi, their main differentiating physical 
characteristic is red hair ; in habits they are rather 
uncivilized, idolatrous, and devoted to hunting and 
fishing. The Vogouls comprise a small group 
dwelling to the east of the Oural, there has been 
considerable admixture between them with the 
Turks and Mongolians, and their physical charac- 
teristics have thus become greatly obscured. 

The Lapps, or Laplanders, are a strong, hardy 
and active people, although small in stature. They 



THE LAPPS. 99 

have a brachycephalic skull, prominent cheek bones, 
and the characteristic Mongol face. Their com- 
plexion is yellowish-brown, and their hair is usually 
brown or of a chestnut color. This color of the 
hair seems to have been acquired since the time of 
Linnaeus, for he describes it as being black. 

The Lapps inhabit various portions of the area 
bounded on the north by the Arctic Ocean, on the 
northwest by the Atlantic, on the east by the White 
Sea, and on the south from 63*^ to 66° north lati- 
tude. This region has been termed Lapland, but 
the name is without any political status. 

The Lapps are usually divided into two groups, 
the nomadic Laplander and the sedentary Laplander. 
The occupation of the nomadic Laplander is the 
taking care of his herd of reindeer. This useful 
animal serves them in many ways ; they harness the 
reindeer to their sleds, they use the flesh for food, 
and the skin for the making of their clothes and 
tents. They also use dogs as animals of draught. 
The average nomadic Laplander leads a miserable 
existence. A tent serves as his place of abode all 
the year around. In the centre of the tent he has 
his fire-place, and an opening in the top permits 
the escape of the smoke. The skins of the reindeer 
are laid around the fireplace and serve as beds for 
the family. Their furniture usually consists of an 
iron pot and a few other utensils. The bladders of 
the reindeer are frequently used to carry milk and 
water in. In his habits the Lapp is uncleanly, 
good-natured, and always endeavors to take life 
easily. 

•I. of a? 



100 THE CHUKCHIS AND THE NAMOLLOS. 

The sedentary Laplander is usually a poor fellow 
who has failed as a reindeer proprietor, and with his 
family has settled down on the sea-coast as a fisher- 
man, while his wife spins wool. He is looked down 
upon by all of his more fortunate neighbors, and 
by the Swede and Norwegian is said to be despised. 
He differs in almost all of his habits from the peo- 
ple amongst whom he lives, and his children are not 
permitted to marry into the better classes. 

As we proceed to the northeastern regions of the 
continent of Asia we find many tribes all possessing 
strong physical characteristics in common, although 
in language they differ in some instances quite de- 
cidedly. 

The Chukchts, a tall, well-built people, with promi- 
nent features and a yellowish-brown complexion, 
occupy a portion of the region in the extreme north- 
eastern part of the continent. They are hunters 
and fishermen. 

There has been considerable diversity of opinion 
as to the origin and relationship of these people, it 
being considered by some that they may have been 
derived from a Manchu or Tungus people which 
long previously settled in the northeastern region 
and there amalgamated with the Onkilon aborigines. 

The Namollos also dwell in this region, and in 
manners and habits differ but little from their neigh- 
bors. Their language is considered to be related to 
that of the Eskimos. To the south live the Kam- 
schatkans. They are a small but hardy people. Dur- 
ing the winter season they dwell in earth pits and 
in the summer in huts. Their most useful domestic 



THE GILIAKS AND THE ALEUTIANS. lOI 

animal is the dog, of a peculiar breed, which is em- 
ployed in hunting and sledging. 

On the lower Amoor and in Northern Saghalien 
dwell the Giliaks, They live generally on the banks 
of rivers or in the vicinity of the sea, and for their 
livelihood depend mainly upon fishing. During the 
summer they live in small houses constructed on 
piles, and during the winter in huts which are par- 
tially buried in the ground. Some of them have 
abundant beards, which feature among Asiatics is 
quite rare ; owing largely to this characteristic some 
anthropologists have considered that they are re- 
lated to the Ainos. Others consider them to be 
allied to the Tunguses. They are quite an intelli- 
gent people, and are usually inclined to indulge in 
trade, and in the selection of ornaments they are 
alleged to show considerable taste. According to 
Deniker, they probably do not exceed at present 
5,000 individuals. 

The Aleutians, of the islands of that name, which 
extend in a curve from the peninsula of Alaska to 
Kamschatka, are a people as to the origin of which 
anthropologists do not altogether agree. By some 
they are considered to be of American origin and 
by others of Asian origin. They are especially well 
known as daring and expert sailors in their hide 
canoes. They are of medium height; the nose is 
flat, and the skull is meso-cephalic. Their popula- 
tion at the present time is said to consist of about 
2,000 individuals. 

Inhabiting the northern portions of the archipel- 
ago of Japan dwell those people known as the Ainos. 



102 THE JAPANESE. 

They differ decidedly from the Japanese in having 
a lighter complexion ; their forehead is higher and 
broader, and their eyes are larger. These Ainos 
also have quite a covering of hair on their bodies. 
They depend mainly on hunting and fishing as a 
means of gaining a livelihood, and lead quite a 
primitive existence. The Ainos are generally con- 
sidered to be a much older people than the Japanese. 

According to the traditions of the Japanese, they 
reached the archipelago they now inhabit from the 
south and southwest, and gradually conquered the 
Ainos whom they found there, and gradually spread 
over the various islands. The Japanese physical 
type is characterized by a flat forehead, a small, well- 
formed nose, with nostrils slightly raised ; the eyes 
are small and less oblique than those of the Chinese; 
the hair is black and not quite as straight as that of 
the Chinese; the average height is 5 feet 4 or 5 
inches ; the complexion is of an olive-yellow. These 
physical characteristics indicate that the Japanese 
cannot claim purity of descent; although mainly 
of Mongolic origin, these people have been modified 
by other blood. 

Intellectually, the Japanese easily surpass all other 
Mongolian peoples, and they are now apparently 
prepared to take a position among the more ad- 
vanced European nations. They are intelligent, 
progressive and heroic. Probably never in the 
whole history of the human species has any people 
so willingly, earnestly and quickly adopted a higher 
civilization as the Japanese have done. Japan pos- 
sesses quite a rich native art and an extensive liter- 
ature, treating mainly of practical subjects. 



CHAPTER IV. 

THE RED (American) race. 

Contents. — The characteristics and origin of the race. The 
Glacial Period in America and its bearing on the antiquity of 
man. The physical uniformity of the American Indians, their 
mental endowments, their culture and their languages. The 
Eskimos. The Algonkins. The Crees. The Chipeways. The 
Blackfeet. The Lenapes. The Iroquois. The Cayugas, the 
Senegas, the Onondagons, the Oneidas and the Mohawks. The 
Dakotas or Sioux. The Muskhogeans, the Choctaws, the 
Creeks and the Seminoles. The Caddoes. The Pawnees. The 
Yumas. The Pueblos. The " Mound Builders." The Sonora. 
The Nahuas or Aztecs and their civilization. The Toltecs. 
The Otomis. The Totonacos. The Zapotecs. The Mixtecks. 
The Mayas and their civilization. The Caribs. The Arawaks. 
The Tulpis, the Ges, the Crans, the Botocudos, the Coroados, 
the Puris and the Malalis. The Qquichuas or Incas. The Pat- 
agonians. The Fuegians. 

WHEN the continent of America first became 
known to the civilized nations of Europe it 
was inhabited throughout its length and breadth by 
primitive tribes, which have become generally known 
to us as Indians, thus continuing the error first ad- 
vanced by Columbus, when he supposed that he had 
found the western route to India. 

The American Indians, or American aborigines, 
while differing in habits and customs in the differ- 
ent portions of North, Central and South America, 
nevertheless have certain strong characteristics in 
common which seem to prove almost to an abso- 
lute certainty that they all have descended from 
one original stock, and that there has not been 

(103) 



I04 CHARACTERISTICS OF AMERICAN INDIAN. 

that commingling of different peoples as was so 
common among the early inhabitants of the Eastern 
Hemisphere. 

The general characteristics of the American In- 
dian are that he is tall in stature, the hair is straight 
and black in color, the skull is variable, the nose is 
narrow, the jaws are straight, the cheek bones are 
high, and the skin is of a coppery or reddish hue. 
Owing to this latter character, which is, however, 
quite variable, the American aborigines are known 
as constituting the Red race. 

The ancestry of the American Indians is a ques- 
tion about which there has been much discussion 
in the past, and which at the present time cannot be 
said to have been settled to the satisfaction of all 
anthropologists, although the consensus of opinion 
seems to be to consider that they are the descend- 
ants of the Yellow race, and probably reached North 
America by way of Behring Strait, although no 
less an authority than Dr. Brinton considers that : 
** So long as we have any knowledge of the mov- 
ings at this point, they have been from America 
into Asia." The distinguished naturalist, Alexan- 
der von Humboldt, considered that the natives of 
Mexico presented all of the important physical 
characteristics of the Mongolian, excepting only 
the nose. The ethnologist, J. J. von Tschudi, says 
that he has seen Chinese whom at first sight he 
considered to belong to the Botocudos of Sierra 
dos Aimures. All of the aboriginal American tribes 
have long, heavy, stiff hair, which, on cross-section, 
exhibits a circular outline, and this latter feature 



THE ORIGIN OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN. IO5 

alone is, perhaps, the strongest argument the an- 
thropologists can offer in support of the Mongolian 
origin of the American Indians. The writer once 
heard the late Prof. E. D. Cope express essentially 
this same opinion. 

Without going further into the subject of the 
route early man took to reach America, the next 
question to consider is : When did prehistoric man 
make his first appearance on this continent? This 
question cannot, of course, be answered positively, 
but geological data have furnished some valuable 
information on this subject. 

During the pleistocene period a most important 
event occurred in the form of an enormous sheet of 
ice of great thickness that covered the greater part 
of Europe and America, in the former country 
reaching as far down as the fiftieth parallel of north 
latitude, and in the latter country in some regions 
as far as the fortieth parallel of north latitude. 
This period is known as the Great Ice Age or the 
Glacial Epoch. How long this ice mass remained 
intact is not known. It is fairly certain, however, 
that once, if not twice, this ice sheet receded, and 
thus we have two or more ice periods, thus also 
causing an ^'interglacial period." At this time great 
climatic changes occurred. From the glaciers great 
rivers flowed all the year around, and during the 
summer season flooded and inundated wide tracts 
of land, and in time deposited large quantities of 
sand, gravel and loam. This glacier was, from all 
indications, a moving mass of ice, pushing south- 
ward, carrying in front of it a long line of earth 



I06 THE GREAT ICE AGE IN AMERICA. 

and boulders, such as the Alpine glaciers do at the 
present time. 

During this ice period man lived in Europe, and 
it is highly probable that his advent into Europe 
was even long before the Ice Age. The remains of 
early man have been found many times in the gla- 
cial deposits of the Old World. 

In North America, at this time, essentially the 
same physical conditions existed as in Europe. It 
touched the Atlantic Ocean in the neighborhood of 
Boston and New York harbors, and in Pennsylvania 
evidences of its presence have been found as far 
south as the fortieth parallel ; it reached across the 
continent in an irregular line north of the Ohio and 
south of the Missouri Rivers. The fauna living at 
this time included the mastodon, a species of horse, 
bison, bear, tapir, peccary, and numerous other 
forms, together with the gigantic extinct forms of 
sloth, as the megatherium, the mylodon and the 
megalonyx. In the deposits of South America the 
remains of the great sloths and armadillos, as well 
as other mammals, have been discovered. 

Evidence of the presence of a glacial period has 
also been found in South Africa. There also seems 
to have been a glacial period in Australia and New 
Zealand. In Northern and Central Asia it is prob- 
able that the glaciers were of great magnitude. 

The subject of the glacial period in America is of 
especial interest to the anthropologist, for it at once 
raises the question : Did man live in America during 
this time? 

In the year 1875 Dr. Charles C. Abbott found in 



THE TRENTON GRAVELS. IO7 

the gravel deposits at Trenton, N. J., certain stone 
implements of human workmanship. These de- 
posits have since become known world-wide as the 
** Trenton gravels." They are, without doubt, gla- 
cial in origin, and that the implements are the work- 
manship of man cannot be questioned. Since that 
time Dr. Abbott has found many paleolithic imple- 
ments in these gravels. In gravels of the same age 
in Ohio, Dr. C. L. Metz has found several imple- 
ments, as did also the late Dr. Hilborn T. Cresson, 
the latter finding a specimen of paleolithic imple- 
ment in deposits of glacial age in Indiana, and 
another near Claymont, Del. Many other speci- 
mens have been reported at different portions of this 
country, but that any of these specimens are of the 
age that is assigned to them is the problem to be 
very seriously considered. In order for us to dem- 
onstrate positively that man lived in America dur- 
ing or immediately after the glacial period, we must 
know (i) that the deposits in which the implements 
are found are of glacial origin ; (2) that the imple- 
ments are of human origin; and (3) that the im- 
plements were deposited at the same time that the 
gravels were deposited. The first two conditions 
can very easily be accepted, but they are valueless 
without the last, and in all of the alleged discoveries 
of paleoliths in the glacial deposits of America it is 
questioned whether the implements and gravels 
were deposited at the same time. It is considered 
probable that the implements were not found in situ 
in the deposits, i, ^., were not deposited simulta- 
neously with the gravels, but subsequently to that 



I08 THE TRENTON GRAVELS. 

event. For example, a grave might be dug in a 
miocene formation during our own time, and vari- 
ous bones and implements might be here buried ; 
now, if the grave were opened a generation hence 
it would not be legitimate for us to assign miocene 
age to these specimens. The subject of the antiquity 
of man in the Delaware Valley, as indicated by the 
study of the Trenton gravels, has received special 
consideration by anthropologists not only of Amer- 
ica, but of the world, and the general tendency of 
opinion among them seems to be that the longer 
the investigation is continued the greater becomes 
the doubt as to the existence of man in America 
during glacial times. Prof. W. H. Holmes, in 
accounting for the origin of recent paleoliths in the 
gravels at Trenton, says: '* Every bank that 
crumbled, every grave dug, every palisade planted, 
every burrow made, every root that penetrated and 
every storm that raged, took part in the work of 
intermingling and burial, and following in turn 
came the resettling, the leeching out and the rece- 
menting of these deposits, making it difficult to dis- 
tinguish the old from the new. It follows, there- 
fore, that the student of the history of this valley, 
and especially of that part of it recorded in the soil 
and superficial deposits, should not for a moment 
lose sight of these conditions and events of recent 
and comparatively recent history, and should seek 
first to explain all phenomena from the point of 
view thus afforded before conjuring up shadowy 
images of other races." 

While the evidence up to date is not sufficient on 



THE CALAVERAS SKULL. lOQ 

the one hand to say that man existed here during 
the glacial period, on the other, we cannot demon- 
strate that he was not here during that time. We 
must, therefore, really assume the agnostic position 
on this matter ; but, from the data furnished by the 
Trenton gravels, it seems fair for us to suspect the 
presence of man in this region when the gravels 
were deposited. 

Some students of the antiquity of early man in 
North America have considered that perhaps the 
stone implements from Table Mountain in Cali- 
fornia, and that, also, the famous skull which was 
alleged to have been found in the deposits of aurif- 
erous gravel in Calaveras county, California, ante- 
date the remains of man that have been found in the 
eastern portion of the United States. These stone 
implements seem, however, to be too perfectly exe- 
cuted to be considered as having been made by 
primitive man, and the record of the Calaveras 
skull is too unsatisfactory to be accepted ; and, be- 
sides, there is much question as to what age the 
auriferous gravels should be assigned. Dr. Joseph 
Leidy, who described many remains from these de- 
posits, doubted very much the antiquity of them 
as assigned by some authorities. Prof, J. D. 
Whitney considered that these gold-bearing gravels 
were of pliocene age, and by Prof. Joseph Le Coute 
they were assigned to the beginning of the glacial 
epoch. 

All of the primitive nations of America possessed 
remarkable uniformity in their physical character- 
istics, and all attempts to classify the different tribes 



no THE GENERAL CULTURE OF THE RACE. 

of the American Indians on physical criteria have 
been failures. 

The mental endowments of the race were by no 
means low, and impartial investigators place the 
Red race next to the Yellow race in intellectual 
capacity, and consider it far superior to the Black 
race. 

The prevalent idea that all of the American 
Indians devoted most of their attention to hunting 
and war is erroneous. In many portions of America, 
where conditions were suitable, attention was given 
to agriculture. Maize was cultivated where it would 
grow. Beans, gourds and tobacco were also culti- 
vated. The Nahuas of Mexico and the Mayas of 
Yucatan tilled large fields, as did also the Iroquois 
and the Algonkins of the Atlantic Coast. 

The domestication of wild animals by any primi- 
tive people is a sign of superiority, and in the case 
of the American aborigines, as far as the fauna 
would permit, they availed themselves of the oppor- 
tunities that were present. Their dogs have be- 
come historic ; they were domesticated from a spe- 
cies, or perhaps several species, of wolf, and were 
used for hunting, and in the north for draught. 
In Brazil the natives are said to have made pets of 
monkeys and parrots. In South America the llama 
was used as a beast of burden, and much valued for 
its hair. In the art of architecture many structures 
have been found which indicate no mean ability on 
the part of the builders, as in Mexico, Yucatan and 
Peru. 

The American race was fond of music, and wind 



AMERICAN LANGUAGES. Ill 

instruments and ''drums'' of different varieties were 
made. It is also probable that they were not alto- 
gether ignorant of stringed instruments. 

In religious belief probably all American tribes, 
with the possible exception of the inhabitants of 
Terra del Fuego, believed in one or more supreme 
beings, and they all had their myths dealing with 
the exploits of their hero-gods. These myths dif- 
fered greatly among the different nations and their 
religious ceremonies were various. 

The native American languages are called polysyn- 
thetic, in that the structure of the sentence is merged 
in the form of the word. In British North America 
and United States fifty-nine irreducible stock lan- 
guages have been recognized. The resemblances 
between these stocks is such, however, as to indicate 
a common origin. Dr. Brinton says: ''Those best 
acquainted with American tongues praise them most 
highly for flexibility, accuracy and resources of 
xepression. They place some of them above any 
Aryan language." As Hnguistic differences can be 
recognized in the American tribes, when physical 
differences can not, language has greatly facilitated 
their classification, as a relationship of language in- 
dicates a relationship by blood. Major J. W. Powell 
illustrates this perhaps more clearly than can be 
done in any other manner by the linguistic map 
accompanying his work on the " Indian Linguistic 
Families of America North of Mexico.'' 

Throughout almost the whole extent of Arctic 
America dwell the Eskimos, which term was first 
applied to them by Europeans. They call them- 



112 THE ESKIMOS. 

selves Innuits or men. Along the southern borders 
of their habitat they have for their neighbors the 
Indian tribes proper. 

In stature the Eskimo is medium or slightly 
below the medium. The face is broad, round and 
fiat. The skull is frequently dolichocephalic in the 
eastern tribes, but in the western tribes is brachy- 
cephalic. These people seem to be decreasing in 
numbers, and important causes seem to be sterility 
and infant mortality. 

The Eskimos are of a bright, cheerful disposition ; 
they appreciate humor and are fond of practical 
jokes. They show a remarkable aptitude in acquir- 
ing knowledge. They are fond of music, and have 
many native songs. They also have their games 
and pastimes, as well as their festivals of a semi- 
religious character. 

The whole manner of their life is very uniform, 
and is dependent largely upon the supply of food 
at the different seasons of the year. They subsist 
largely upon the seal, the deer and the walrus. 
The flesh of the seal supplies them with food, the 
blubber furnishes them with fuel during the winter 
season, and out of the skin they make their clothes 
and tents, in which they live in the summer. In 
the winter they live in houses constructed of snow 
and ice. They are a very peaceful people, and wars 
between settlements are rare. Dr. Franz Boas, who 
spent considerable time among the Central Eskimos, 
was unable to find any records of a war having 
occurred, except a feud that was alleged to have 
happened seventy years before. 



THE ALGONKINS. II3 

The Eskimo makes a lamp out of stone and fur- 
nishes it with a wick of dried moss. They are ex- 
perts in the use of their native boats or *' kyaks/' 
which are long, narrow canoes covered with skin. 
They also use snow-shoes. Their sleds with teams 
of dogs are exceedingly useful. ''The social order 
of the Eskimo/' says Boas, ''is entirely founded on 
the family and on the ties of consanguinity and 
affinity between the individual families." 

At the time of the discovery of America, in the 
region extending from the Rocky Mountains on the 
west, as far south as Delaware, and as far north as 
Labrador, thus including nearly all of the Northern 
States, dwelt the Algonkin nation. The Algonkins 
illustrate as well as any other of the American abor- 
igines the characteristics of the Red race, and they 
may be considered as being typical examples of the 
race, both physically and mentally. They occupied 
quite an extensive geographical area in eastern 
North America, extending from Labrador and the 
southern shores of Hudson Bay, where they came in 
contact with the Eskimos, southward to Cape Fear 
and Cape Hatteras ; it is difficult, in fact impossible, 
to determine how far west this stock extended, as 
the tracing of the relationships of all of the Indians 
of central North America is. 

In Labrador and the southern shores of the Hud- 
son Bay region dwelt the Crees. On the island of 
Newfoundland were the Mic Macs, a few of which, 
the writer found in 1900, still remain in the vicinity 
of Bay d'Espoir, although it is generally stated that 
they are extinct. 
8 



114 THE BLACKFEET, LENAPE, AND OTHERS. 

On the shores of Lake Superior were found the 
Chipeways, In the region of the headwaters of the 
Missouri River dwelt the Blackfeet, and in the 
Delaware Valley, the Lenapes. In addition to these 
there were many other tribes, all occupying nearly 
the same plane of development and all quite similar 
in manners and customs. They were all skilled in 
the making of stone implements, and in aboriginal 
warfare. They dwelt in villages and were agricul- 
tural, raising maize, beans and tobacco. Their leg- 
ends were many and they valued their ancestral 
history. They had a primitive system of writing, 
some specimens of which have been preserved. The 
inscriptions on the famous Dighton rock in Massa- 
chusetts, which at one time were considered by 
some archaeologists to have been done by the 
Norsemen, are now known to have been of Algon- 
kin origin. The Lenapes were also considerably 
advanced in the system of picture-writing. 

The Iroquois extended from Canada southward 
to Pennsylvania and Ohio; they were surrounded 
on all sides by the Algonkins. The tribes of the 
Cayugas, Senecas, OnondagonSy Oneidas and Mo- 
hawks bound themselves together into the ''five 
nations," and as such were important factors in 
some portions of colonial history. 

The Dakotas or Sioux inhabited the grassy plains 
between the Mississippi River and the Rocky Moun- 
tains and extended as far south as Arkansas. 

They were divided into many tribes; in the 
southern section of their distribution dwelt the 
QuapawSy the Kansas y and the O sages ; in the cen- 



THE TUSCARORAS AND CHEROKEES. II5 

tral region dwelt the Poncas^ the Omahas^ and the 
Assinibotns, and the Crows; and in the region 
about Green Bay on Lake Michigan dwelt the 
Winnebagoes. 

Still further south, in the region of the headwaters 
of the Roanoke river, dwelt the Tuscaroras, which 
at a later date formed the sixth of the great nations. 
The Cherokees dwelt along the upper waters of the 
Tennessee river. In various directions all of these 
tribes showed great ability, and their intelligence 
must be considered to be among the highest. This 
was especially illustrated in their system of govern- 
ment, when the chief, Hiawatha, succeeded in his 
great scheme of linking together the five nations 
into one great confederation. Each nation was per- 
mitted to retain its own individuality relative to its 
own affairs, but such matters as concerned and af- 
fected all were controlled by a federal senate, which 
was composed of representatives elected by each 
nation. The ablest of the ruling chiefs were usually 
elected to be representatives in the federal senate. 
The idea intended by this federation was very elab- 
orate, and it was intended to be indefinitely expan- 
sible, and had its objects been accomplished it would 
have been far more powerful and it would have 
wielded much more influence than it did. 

The MuskhogeanSy including the Choctaws, the 
Creeks, the Seminoles and a few other tribes, inhab- 
ited the region bordering on the Gulf of Mexico, 
and extended as far north as the base of the Appa- 
lachian Mountains. A few Seminoles still remain 
in some of the wilder portions of Florida. 



Il6 THE PUEBLOS. 

The Caddoes extended from the Gulf of Mexico 
west of the Mississippi River to the Platte River. 
The Pawnees belong to this group. So far as we 
know, they were not especially advanced in any 
particular, and depended largely on hunting and 
fishing as their means of sustenance. 

The Rocky Mountain region was occupied by 
many different tribes who spoke many different 
stock languages. Geographically, the most import- 
ant were the Yumas, who occupied the valley of the 
Colorado River and the peninsula of Lower Cali- 
fornia. 

Tht Pueblos occupied portions of New Mexico and 
Arizona. They dwelt in large habitations, built of 
stone and sun-dried brick, which in some instances 
are large enough to contain a whole tribe. These 
edifices are frequently several stories high. These 
people were first visited by the Spanish in the year 
1530. The Pueblos were agriculturists, and were 
also skilled in the making of pottery, as well as in 
spinning and weaving. From the ruins of the old 
habitations and the old pottery found, it is evident 
that at one time they were quite numerous. 
Throughout the region of the Colorado and Rio 
Grande Rivers, upon the clififs overlooking the deep 
gorges, are found the ''cliff-houses," which were 
built upon the ledges of the rocks. It is supposed 
that these buildings served as places of retreat from 
the more hostile tribes. Brinton has divided the 
Pueblos into three different stocks, the Kera, the 
Tehua and the Zuni, 

Before considering the native tribes of Central 



THE MOUND BUILDERS. II7 

America it is well that reference be made to the so- 
called ''Mound Builders." At various portions of 
the United States between the Allegheny and the 
Rocky Mountains, especially in the Ohio Valley, 
and also in the Gulf States, are found a number of 
remarkable earth mounds. In form they differ 
considerably, being round, oval or square, and in 
some instances triangular in outline. In height 
they are from a few inches to nearly a hundred feet. 
The majority of them are burial mounds, others are 
defensive, and others again probably have a religious 
origin. Some of them represent certain animal 
forms, as mammals, birds and reptiles. It was for- 
merly supposed that these mounds were constructed 
by a former race of people which occupied this 
country before the American Indians ; but now such 
is not considered to be the case, and, in fact, it has 
been almost conclusively settled that they were con- 
structed by the native Indians. On this subject 
Major Powell says: ''With regard to the mounds 
so widely scattered between the two oceans, it may 
be said that mound-building tribes were known in 
the early history of discovery of this continent, and 
that the vestiges of art discovered do not excel in 
any respect the arts of the Indian tribes known to 
history. There is, therefore, no reason for us to 
search for an extralimital origin through lost tribes 
for the arts discovered in the mounds of North 
America." 

At the time of the discovery of the continent, 
mound-building was probably still in progress, as 
some of these mounds have, without doubt, been 



Il8 MEXICAN TRIBES. 

finished since that time, because in some instances 
articles of European workmanship have been found 
therein. Dr. Cyrus Thomas, in his '' Report on the 
Mound Explorations," cites instances where three 
small copper bells were taken from one mound, 
from another a piece of silver stamped with the 
Spanish coat-of-arms, and from another an old 
steel-bladed, bone-handled case-knife. These and 
many other facts show that these mounds are not as 
ancient as they were at one time supposed to be. 

A number of tribes occupying Mexico and por- 
tions of the country north of Mexico have been 
united into a single group by Bushmann, which he 
has called the Sonora, He devoted particular at- 
tention to the phonetic system, the numerals and 
the grammar of these peoples, and from this study 
demonstrated the relationship of the Tarahumaras, 
the Telpehuanas, the Coras and the Cahitas, The 
Moquot, the Utes, the Comanches and the Shoshonees 
or Snake Indians, from linguistic evidence, are con- 
sidered to be related. All of these tribes show that 
their vocabulary has more or less been adopted from 
the Nahuatl language which was spoken by the 
people of Mexico. 

The NahuaSy or Aztecs, occupied or controlled 
the greater portion of Mexico at the time the coun- 
try was discovered by Cortez, and here they had 
developed quite a high stage of civilization. They 
had built up large cities, composed of thousands of 
houses of brick and stone. In these cities a thriv- 
ing business was carried on, particularly on market 
days, and their merchants did an extensive trade, 
reaching well down towards the Isthmus of Panama, 



THE NAHUAS. II9 

The Nahuas were an industrious, active and en- 
terprising people. They were agricultural, raising 
maize, cotton, beans and tobacco, and in architec- 
ture showed their skill in their temples and monu- 
ments. They were familiar with the arts of making 
pottery and the weaving and coloring of fabrics. 
They were able to cut and poHsh the hardest stones, 
and possessed knowledge as to the fusing of metals. 

The religion of the Nahuas was polytheistic, and 
their most important deity was the God of War. 
When Cortez visited Mexico he found attached to 
the temple about 5,000 priests. They were en- 
trusted with the education of the young. The 
women were in many instances on equal footing 
with the men. Reading, writing and arithmetic 
were taught both sexes, as were also their astron- 
omy and astrology. There were priestesses as well 
as priests. 

The calendar of the Nahuas recognized the solar 
year of 365 days, which was divided into eighteen 
months of twenty days each, with the extra five 
days added to the last. The difference between the 
actual time of the earth's annual journey around 
the sun and their year was corrected by every fifty- 
second year intercalculating thirteen days. It is 
also probable that they knew the cause of eclipses. 

Their writing was in hieroglyphic characters which 
were painted on paper made from the leaves of the 
magney plant. This system of writing has been 
called by Brinton the '' ikonomatic method.'' 

According to tradition the Toltecs are said to 
have come from the north and occupied this region 



120 THE MAYAS. 

prior to the time of the Nahuas ; but the tendency 
among present writers seems to be to consider that 
the Toltecs were probably merely a tribe, and that 
all of the remarkable accounts as to their civilization 
have been greatly exaggerated. 

Besides the Nahuas there were a number of other 
tribes in this region, which, while of interest to the 
specialist in American ethnology, are hardly of suf- 
ficient importance to be dwelt upon here. 

The Otomis are of interest on account of the char- 
acter of their language, which is largely monosylla- 
bic. The natives whom Cortez first encountered on 
landing in Mexico are supposed to have been the 
Totonacos ; they were considerably advanced in 
civilization, and in religion were sun-worshippers. 
The Zapotecs, at the time of the conquest, had made 
considerable progress. They were an agricultural 
people and dwelt in villages. Their neighbors, the 
Mixtecs, were on about the same plane of culture. 
All of these tribes indicate that their contact with 
the Nahuas was decidedly beneficial to them. 

During pre-Columbian times, the Peninsula of 
Yucatan and the territory south of it to the Pacific 
Ocean were occupied by the Mayas. They are de- 
scribed to be of about average stature, with robust, 
bony frames, brachycephalic skull, which was some- 
times artificially compressed. 

The Mayas held out more strenuously and suc- 
cessfully against the Spaniards than did the Nahuas, 
and even at the present day their influence is still 
strong in Yucatan, where in the inland portions a 
knowledge of the Maya language is necessary to 



THE MAYAS. 121 

hold intercourse with the natives. In some por- 
tions it is said that even the descendants of the 
Spaniards have forgotten their mother tongue. 
The large majority of their towns are known by 
their native names. 

While these people were probably never visited 
by Columbus, it seems, nevertheless, that he had 
heard of them. It is well known that Columbus in 
his first three voyages did not reach the continent 
of America. On his fourth and last expedition, 
however, he discovered a small island known to the 
natives by the name of Guanaja. This island was 
probably the one now known as the Island of Bon- 
aca, off the coast of Honduras. While on this island 
he saw a canoe filled with natives coming from the 
west. In reply to the inquiries of the Spaniards as 
to gold, they pointed to the we stand unsuccessfully 
endeavored to persuade Columbus to accompany 
them. In the words of Washington Irving, as quoted 
by Stephens, ''Well would it have been for Colum- 
bus had he followed their advice. Within a day or 
two he would have arrived at Yucatan; the dis- 
covery of Mexico and the other opulent countries of 
New Spain would have necessarily followed. The 
southern ocean would have been disclosed to him, 
and a succession of splendid discoveries would have 
shed fresh glory on his declining age, instead of its 
sinking amid gloom, neglect and disappointment.'* 

The first European to visit Yucatan was Francisco 
Hernandez de Cordova, in the year 15 17. Although 
many expeditions were sent out and attempts at 
conquests made, it was not until 1541 that a perma- 



122 THE MAYAS. 

nent settlement was established. In this year the 
younger Francisco de Montejo went into the coun- 
try to the site of an ancient town called Ichcanziho, 
to which he gave the name of Merida, the present 
capital of Yucatan. 

The Mayas were one of the most cultured of the 
American aboriginal peoples, and it seems probable 
that they may have been descended from the Nahuas, 
although their traditions, monuments, hieroglyphics 
and language differ. They were particularly adept 
in the art of architecture, and their building mate- 
rial was usually a hard limestone. Their monu- 
ments usually face the cardinal points. The build- 
ings were erected largely on the pyramidal form, 
rising from a broad base through a series of steps to 
the summit. The highest of these pyramids was 
less than lOO feet. The base sometimes occupied 
considerable space, as that of Zayi, near Uxmal, 
had a periphery of over 1,500 feet. 

The Mayas were familiar with the bow and arrow, 
the lance, and the blowpipe or sarbacane, and were 
quite expert in war and the chase; but, nevertheless, 
they were essentially an agricultural people. Maize 
was their most important product, and they also 
raised beans, peppers, cotton and tobacco. Copper 
and gold were their important metals, and they 
were familiar with silver, but were not acquainted 
with iron. These metals were used mainly for 
decoration, and it is doubtful whether they under- 
stood the art of smelting. The Mayas constructed 
rafts and canoes, which they were able to navigate 
with great skill, and it is alleged they were familiar 



THE MAYAS. I23 

with the sail. They had their gods, but we know 
very little about their religion. Human sacrifices 
did not take place as frequently among the Mayas 
as among the Nahuas. Sacrifices, when they did 
occur, were followed by several holidays, and danc- 
ing, banquets and drunkenness were indulged in, as 
they were acquainted with several fermented drinks. 

According to Dr. Brinton, essentially the same 
calendar system was in use among the Mayas as 
that which was used by the Nahuas, and Dr. Cyrus 
Thomas considers there is in these calendars some 
evidence of a Polynesian influence. 

The Mayas were familiar with the art of writing, 
and employed the so-called '' calculiform " hiero- 
glyphics, so named from their resemblance to the 
outline of calculi or pebbles. Associated with these 
characters are certain crude drawings, frequently of 
their gods, of which the hieroglyphics are supposed 
to be descriptive. The hieroglyphic writing of the 
Mayas has been preserved on stone, wood, pottery 
and sheets of native paper. Of the latter, four 
manuscripts, or '' Codices," are known to be in ex- 
istence. Much time and labor have been expended 
on the deciphering of these works, but thus far the 
result has not been as satisfactory as could be 
desired. There are a number of different tribes in- 
cluded in the Maya stock, each differing to a slight 
extent in language and customs. 

On the continent of South America the so-called 
*' hunting tribes" predominate, and only in or near 
the Andes do we find tribes which are to any extent 
civilized. Their languages differ greatly, and no 



124 SOUTH AMERICAN TRIBES. 

attempt has been successful in classifying them sat- 
isfactorily, as has in some instances been fairly well 
done with the native North American tongues. 

On the northern coast of South America, partic- 
ularly that portion bordering on the Caribbean Sea, 
dwelt the Caribs. They were an intelligent people 
and were good sailors, and are said to have es- 
tablished a colony in Hayti, although they were 
cannibals. Inhabiting the coast between the rivers 
Orinoco and Amazon were found the Arawaks ; the 
greater and lesser Antilles were also occupied by 
them ; some cultivated the soil and made their gar- 
ments from wild cotton, which they were able to 
spin and weave ; they were probably the first natives 
Columbus came in contact with in the new world. 

Throughout the vast territory drained by the 
Amazon River are a large number of diflferent 
tribes whose relationships are very obscure. The 
early explorers in this region found first the Tulpis, 
and under this name a large number of different 
tribes have at times been included. The territory 
drained by the Tocantin River was occupied by the 
G&s, and also the Crans, to which were related the 
Botocudos, the Coroados, the Puris and the Malalts. 

The people possessing the greatest culture in 
South America were the Qquichuas, or Incas, of 
Peru. They extended in the Andes region from about 
the equator southward for a distance of at least 2,000 
miles in length, and in width from 200 to 400 miles. 
The origin of the Qquichuas is unknown, but from 
the extent of their architecture it is certain they 
had been developing for a long period of time. 



THE PERUVIANS. 125 

They erected many remarkable stone buildings, 
forts, walls and bridges. Water, which is so highly 
valued in tropical climates, was collected in reser- 
voirs, and through aqueducts was frequently con- 
veyed many miles. They were familiar with gold 
and silver, and were expert in manipulating these 
metals, making articles of various kinds with math- 
ematical precision. They were acquainted with the 
art of weaving cotton and the wool of the llama and 
alpacas. They were able to make their fabrics of 
different colors, as they were conversant with 
methods of dyeing. 

Their most important domestic animal was the 
llama, which they used for carrying burdens, for 
food and for wool. The dog was also domesticated, 
and also a species of fowl. Their most important 
agricultural products were maize, cotton, coca, pota- 
toes and tobacco. 

The Peruvians gave especial attention to the 
mummification of the dead, and interred the re- 
mains in sepulchres. They believed in the immor- 
tality of the soul, and worshipped the sun, moon 
and stars. In certain districts they worshipped 
particular animals ; in others the mountains and 
the sea. 

So far as we know they were acquainted with no 
system of writing, and with no method of numera- 
tion. As a substitute it seems they used the quipos, 
which consisted of strings of different lengths, 
knotted in various ways to have certain significa- 
tions. Their pottery exhibits great beauty, and 
was made in many different designs. 



126 THE PATAGONIANS AND FUEGIANS. 

The Patagonians are a roaming set of people of 
large physique; they care but little for improvement, 
and have but few religious rites, although they are 
alleged to salute the new moon. 

They call themselves Chonek or Tzoneca, or 
Inaken, which signifies the men or the people, and 
by their more northern neighbors they are referred 
to as Tehuel-Che, which signifies the southerners. 
An interesting fact relative to their language was 
pointed out by Ramon Lista; he compared many 
words in their present vocabulary with the vocabu- 
lary collected by Pigafetta on his voyage in the year 
1520, and he has shown that since that time little 
or no change has occurred. 

On the barren land of Terra del Fuego dwell the 
Fuegians. In culture they occupy quite an inferior 
position, which is probably more the result of their 
environment rather than any inferior mental de- 
velopment. They are without government and go 
almost naked. A redeeming feature, however, is 
that they have domesticated a native species of dog, 
the friend and companion of man in every latitude. 

There are three groups of people recognized as 
inhabiting Terra del Fuego. One of them being 
the Yahgans, or Yapoos, on the Beagle canal; 
another group is the Onas, or Aonik, to the north 
and east of the Yahgans ; and the third is the 
Aliculufs, which dwell to the north and west. As 
would naturally be expected, they are all in about 
the same stage of culture, and the ordinary family 
ties are said to be almost entirely lacking. In the 
arts of hunting and fishing, however, they show 



THE FUEGIANS. 127 

considerable ingenuity. As to their weapons, they 
have the sling, the bow, the bola, and the lance. 
The women are quite clever in the making of strong 
reed baskets. The bark canoes made and used by 
the Fuegians are considered to be quite seaworthy. 



CHAPTER V. 

THE WHITE (EUROPEAN) RACE. 

Contents. — The physical characteristics of the races. The race 
in the region of the Mediterranean Sea. The South Mediter- 
ranean branch. The Hamites. The Berbers. The Libyans. 
The Moors. The Numidians. The Guanches. The Rifians. 
The Egyptians and their culture. The East Africans. The 
Bedjas. The Daakals, or Afars. The Gallas. The Somalis. 
The Massi. The Semites. The Arabs. The Abyssinians. 
The Armenians. The Syrians. The Assyrians. The Baby- 
lonians. The Jews. The North Mediterranean branch. The 
Basques. The Aryans and their origin. The Umbrians. 
The Samnites. The Latins, or Romans. The Celts. The 
Highland Scotch. The Irish. The Manx. The Welsh. 
The Teutons. The Goths. The Vandals. The Angles and 
Saxons. The Danes. The Norsemen. The Franks. The 
Lombards. The Swedes. The Norwegians. The Icelanders. 
The Germans. The Slavs. The Huns. The Russians. The 
Ruthenians. The Poles. The Czechs. The Bulgarians. The 
Wends, or Sorbs. The Letts. The Albanians. The Illyrians. 
The Armenians. The Baktrians. The Persians. The Cau- 
casic peoples, their languages and their tribes. 

IN the history of mankind the most important 
and successful peoples have been those of the 
White race. From the humblest of beginnings, as 
primitive as any of those with which we are familiar, 
the race has struggled onward, overcoming all ob- 
stacles, adapting itself to various environments, and 
finally has succeeded in attaining the highest human 
development with which we are acquainted. 

The physical characteristics of this race are more 
variable than those of any of the other races, the 

(128) 



PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WHITE RACE. I29 

reason being probably because the race has existed 
under more diverse environments than any of the 
others. 

The individuals are usually possessed of a whitish- 
colored skin, which may be very florid or ruddy, 
merging in some instances into a dusky or swarthy 
complexion ; or in some instances again it may be 
of a light olive, or some of the various shades of 
brown. 

The hair is flaxen, light brown, black, or some- 
times red. On cross-section it presents an oval 
outline. It is usually wavy, with a tendency to be 
curly. 

The skull is generally mesocephalic, with the ten- 
dency, however, to present considerable variation. 

It has long been recognized that many of the 
oldest peoples of the white race have dwelt in the 
region of the Mediterranean Sea ; the race, in fact, 
is sometimes referred to as the Mediterranean race. 
The real significance of this distribution on the part 
of this race has not, however, been fully recognized 
until comparatively recent years, but now it is con- 
sidered by some of the ablest anthropologists that 
the White race possibly originated at some point 
in the basin of the Mediterranean, and there are a 
number of reasons which seem to indicate that 
Northern Africa may have been the region where 
the White race first became dififerentiated. 

From miocene times many geological changes 
have occurred in this region, and the contour of 
the Mediterranean has been considerably altered. 
Land connections of quite an extensive size seem 

9 



130 MEDITERRANEAN BRANCHES. 

to have been present during pliocene and post- 
pliocene times, connecting Northern Africa with 
Southern Europe. This explains the geographical 
distribution of many of the plants and animals of 
this region, and at the same time makes it highly 
probable that the migrations of early man were 
affected thereby. 

Dr. Brinton considered the White race to be 
/'geographically and historically an African race," 
and he pointed out that, when the inhabitants of 
the three great continents became known, the White 
race possessed in Asia, 2,500,000 square miles; in 
Europe, 3,000,000 square miles ; and in Africa, 
3,500,000 square miles. 

The close association of the White race to the 
Mediterranean region results in the very natural 
division of the race into two groups: the South 
Mediterranean branch and the North Mediterranean 
branch. 

The South Mediterranean branch comprises the 
Hamitic and the Semitic peoples. 

The Hamites occupy North Africa from the Medi- 
terranean to the Soudan, and along the coast region 
of Eastern Africa, north of the equator, to the 
Atlantic Ocean. They are divided into three 
groups : the Berbers, the ancient Egyptia^ts, and 
the East African. 

The Berbers include the Libyans, the Moors, the 
Numidians, the Guanches, the Rifians, and other 
peoples. All of the Berbers are readily identified 
as members of the White race; the brunette type 
predominates, although blondes are found. Their 



THE EGYPTIANS. I3I 

language, while furnishing many dialects in different 
sections of the country, presents in general great 
uniformity. The Berbers have inhabited their pres- 
ent locality from the earliest times, and there is 
every reason to suppose they are the indigenous in- 
habitants ; and, although there have been many ex- 
peditions of conquest into their territory at various 
times, they have preserved their racial purity with 
great tenacity. Their government consists of vil- 
lages united into federations, which at times have 
been quite powerful. About 1400 B. C. they had 
an army against Egypt consisting of 30,000 men. 
*'At that date," says Brinton, ''the nations of the 
North Mediterranean branch were yet in the stone 
age, and the sites of Greece and Rome were the 
homes of savages.'' The Berbers were one of the 
most cultured of the early members of the White 
race, and while they have not kept pace with the 
development of human progress, they nevertheless 
largely retain their early culture. 

Confined in the narrow limits of the valley of the 
river Nile, shut off from the rest of the world by 
continuous deserts, we find the most cultured peo- 
ple of antiquity, the ancient Egyptians. Judging 
from their skeletons, they resembled the other 
members of the White race in general, and their 
neighbors, the Berbers, in particular. In the mod- 
ern Egyptian the stature is medium ; the skull is 
dolichocephalic ; the hair is dark and straight, or 
slightly curly; the nose is long and straight, or 
aquiline. In color the Egyptians were among the 
darkest members of the White race, varying from a 



132 THE EGYPTIANS. 

yellowish-white to a reddish-brown. By the ancient 
Greeks they were considered to be quite dark. 
Herodotus calls them '' blacks/' They probably 
did not differ very materially from the Copts of the 
present day. 

In intellectual development and civilization the 
ancient Egyptians occupied a high position. Intel- 
lectually they possessed much subtlety and acute- 
ness. They were devoted to science, to literature, 
and to art. They possessed a literature embracing 
works on philosophy, mathematics, rehgion, law, 
medicine, and other departments of knowledge. 
Their architecture was massive, but was lacking in 
the higher qualities of art. 

While the Egyptians possessed many of the vir- 
tues of later civilized peoples, they, nevertheless, in- 
dulged in many vices. Drunkenness was not rare 
among them, and was indulged in by the young as 
well as by the old. Dyes, cosmetics, false hair, 
etc., were used by the Egyptian beauties, which 
have long since faded into withered mummies, for 
the same purpose as they are used by the society 
belles of the present day. ' Games and sports of 
many kinds were popular. Banquets were common, 
and the costumes worn were magnificent. Theo- 
retically they had a moral code, but as a rule it was 
not put into practice. 

Strong evidence of Egyptian development is 
shown in their calendar. The year was divided into 
twelve months, which were divided into three weeks 
of ten days each, to which were added five extra 
days. Their system of hieroglyphic writing con- 



THE HAMITIC STOCK. I33 

tributed greatly to the advancement of civilization, 
their records containing the earliest phonetic char- 
acters known. 

The country they inhabited doubtless contributed 
largely to the early ripening of their culture, the 
regular rise and fall of the waters of the Nile being 
very favorable to their agriculture. 

The antiquity of Egyptian culture can only be 
estimated approximately. The first dynasty was 
founded by King Mena about 4000 B. C, but at 
this time their civilization was thousands of years 
old, being far more ancient, so far as we know, 
than that existing at any other region on earth. 

Inhabiting East Africa from the Mediterranean to 
the equator are a number of peoples belonging to 
the Hamitic stock, which constitute the East African 
group. Of these the Bedjas occupy a large portion 
of the territory between the Nile and the Red Sea, 
extending into upper Egypt. Physically they are 
considered to be quite a well-developed people. The 
Daakal, or Afars, inhabit the southerly shores of 
the Red Sea, extending as far as the Strait of Bab-el- 
Mandeb. The most numerous are the Gallas, being 
estimated, according to Keane, to consist of **from 
7,000,000 to 8,000,000, spread over a territory of 
400,000 square miles.'' They dwell in South Ethio- 
pia, and also in portions of Abyssinia. Inhabiting 
this region are also the Somalis. They are described 
to be a handsome, well-developed people. Farther 
to the south dwell the Massi, and other tribes which 
are greatly dreaded by the negro tribes of this re- 
gion on account of their warlike tendencies. 



134 THE SEMITIC STOCK. 

The habits of all of these people are nomadic ; they 
dwell in tents, which are easily shifted from place to 
place. Their government consists of small commu- 
nities ruled over by a chief. Very little attention is 
given to agriculture and the pursuits of peace. 

Many of the East African tribes show signs of 
admixture with the Black race, or, more frequently, 
with the Semites. 

The Semitic stock comprises the Arabian, the 
Abyssinian and the Chaldean, They all occupy 
mainly Western Asia and portions of Eastern Africa. 
They are more bearded than the Hamitic peoples, 
but beyond this perhaps no constant physical char- 
acteristic for differentiation can be found. It is con- 
sidered, from linguistic evidence, that the Hamites 
and Semites originally developed in the same pri- 
meval home, but at what time the separation and 
differentiation occurred is at present a matter of 
conjecture. 

While the Semites are mentally quite clever and 
original, they lack that perseverance which is so 
necessary for permanent progress. They appreciate 
the beautiful and have a powerful imagination ; but 
in philosophy and science they have made very lit- 
tle progress. In art their main production has been 
in glass, pottery, textile fabrics and the sculpture of 
Assyria. 

The Arabian group, as the name indicates, dwell 
in the great peninsula of Arabia, where, for thou- 
sands of years, they have roamed this great coun- 
try, which is nearly one-third as large as the con- 
tinent of Europe. 



THE ABYSSINIANS. I35 

The Arab, or Bedouin, recognizes the authority 
of no master. Associations of kindred are con- 
tinued only so long as the interests and companion- 
ships are agreeable. Where differences relative to 
important matters arise, a friendly separation is 
mutually decided upon. 

Among the Arabs close matrimonial alliances of 
kinship are common. The Arab ages early, at forty 
years of age becoming gray, and at sixty he is old. 
While his period of life is short, it is rarely ham- 
pered with disease. From infancy he is accustomed 
to endure without complaint. He is accustomed to 
live out of doors, sleeping for a few hours on the 
ground, eating sometimes but once a day and still 
enduring physical strain without complaint. Friend- 
ship is very highly prized among them, and the 
guest is considered sacred in the Arab camp. 

The Abyssinians are probably descended from 
ancestors that originally came from Arabia. At 
what period this migration occurred is unknown, 
but it was certainly long prior to the present era. 
These people, unlike the Arabs, cannot pride them- 
selves on being a pure-blooded race, as they show 
unmistakable evidences of racial admixture with the 
blacks and other ethnic elements. Their features 
are negroid, their hair is crispy, and the color of 
their skin is brown. The soil of Abyssinia is fertile, 
and the inhabitants are devoted mainly to agricul- 
ture and manufacture. 

In the Chaldean group are found peoples exhibit- 
ing elements of exceedingly diverse origin. Here 
belong the Armenians, the Syrians, the Assyrians, 



136 THE NORTH MEDITERRANEAN BRANCH. 

the Babylonians, and the Jews, From very early- 
times interminglings with other ethnic groups 
occurred among these peoples, sometimes evidently 
with the Hamites, as well as probably with peoples 
of the North Mediterranean branch. 

The different groups comprising those members 
of the North Mediterranean branch of the White 
race do not show the uniformity in appearance, 
language and customs, which to an extent so largely 
characterizes the South Mediterranean branch. 
The peoples north of the Mediterranean have de- 
veloped under a different and more diverse environ- 
ment and hence greater differentiation has occurred, 
which makes the relationship of these populations 
much more obscure. 

The North Mediterranean branch comprises the 
Basques, the Aryans, and the Caucasic peoples. 

The Basques form one of the most isolated groups 
of people found in Europe. They inhabit both sides 
of the Pyrenees, on the frontiers of both France 
and Spain. They formerly occupied the whole of 
Spain and Southwest France; but their habitat has 
since become restricted by wars waged with other 
peoples, particularly by the Celts, until now it has 
been estimated they do not exceed 300,000. They 
formerly spoke Euscara, and called themselves 
Euscaldunac. By the old geographers they were 
called Ibernians. The early history of the Basques 
is veiled to a considerable extent in obscurity. 
The medieval historians refer to them in a very un- 
favorable manner, and the pilgrims eight or nine 
centuries ago dreaded them when they crossed the 



THE ARYANS. 1 37 

Pyrenees, in which region they were largely brig- 
ands. The origin of the Basques is unknown, al- 
though it is certain they constitute one of the old- 
est, if not the oldest, groups of people in Europe. 
Their language possesses characteristics which place 
it among the primitive forms of human speech. 
Although a Basque physical type is denied, there 
are, nevertheless, alleged to be certain physical and 
linguistic resemblances which would seem to con- 
nect them with the Berbers. 

The Aryans are synonymously referred to as the 
Indo-European or Indo-Germanic peoples. Geo- 
graphically they may be separated into an eastern 
and a western branch. With the exception of the 
Basques, the Magyars, the Finns and the Turks, 
they constitute the inhabitants of Europe. The 
eastern branch includes the inhabitants of Persia, of 
Armenia, of Afghanistan, and of North Hindustan. 
The relationship of the peoples inhabiting these 
different sections of country has been established 
by the study of their languages ; but none of the 
known Aryan tongues can be said to be the orig- 
inal parent stem from which the other forms were 
derived, although the deduction of linguists is that 
a people did at one time exist which spoke the 
Aryan mother-tongue. Says Dr. Isaac Taylor : 
'*The origin of the Aryan languages is veiled in the 
remote past, and the causes which gave rise to their 
divergences must be to a great extent a matter for 
conjecture." 

It was formerly considered that the Aryans orig- 
inated in Asia and later spread into Europe, but at 



138 ORIGIN OF THE ARYANS. 

the present time the general tendency of opinion 
among ethnologists seems to be that the Aryans 
originated in Europe and later extended their dis- 
tribution into Asia. We know that Europe has 
been inhabited by man from those remote ages 
when he was contemporaneous with the cave bear, 
the mammoth, the rhinoceros and other extinct 
forms. It is also reasonably certain that Europe 
has been continuously populated since that early 
time, and it is supposed the present inhabitants are 
the descendants of these early people. 

The European origin of the Aryans, Dr. Brinton 
says, was first advanced by the Belgian naturalist 
d'Omalius d'Halloy in the year 1839, although it is 
generally considered to be due to the work of the 
late Dr. Robert G. Latham that the old and gen- 
erally accepted belief of the Asiatic origin was first 
questioned. Latham maintained in the year 1851 
that a European origin was probable, and con- 
tended that the main body of the Aryans were in 
Europe, while in Asia a small detached body of 
them are found. He reasonably maintained that it 
was far more likely that the smaller body had come 
ofif from the larger rather than that the larger had 
come ofif from the smaller. Such an eminent 
scholar, however, as Prof. F. Max Miiller writes in 
1887: ''If an answer must be given as to the place 
where our Aryan ancestors dwelt before their sep- 
aration, ... I should still say, as I said forty 
years ago, 'Somewhere in Asia,' and no more." 

The Aryan linguistic family includes ten groups 
of languages, the Hellenic, the Italic, the Celtic, the 



THE GREEKS. 1 39 

Teutonic, the Slavonic, the Lithuanic, the Albanian, 
the Armenian, the Iranic, and the Indie. The first 
seven of these were the languages spoken by the 
Aryans of Europe, and the last three were the lan- 
guages spoken by these people in Asia. 

By far the most important of the Hellenic peo- 
ples were the ancient Greeks, It is likely that the 
separation of the Greeks from the Aryan parent- 
stem occurred in the vallev of the Danube. Their 
language is considered to present strong relation- 
ship to the ancient Persian and Sanscrit, and also 
to have been influenced by the Semitic and Hamitic 
peoples. Owing to the comminglings the Greeks 
have undergone with other peoples, their physical 
and linguistic characteristics have become greatly 
changed. Mentally these people were in many re- 
spects far superior to all others of their time. In 
philosophy, mathematics, architecture, mechanics, 
art and literature, their position is so familiar to all 
that comment here is unnecessary. 

The Italic peoples occupied the peninsula of Italy. 
In the north were the Umbrians ; and in the south 
the Samnites and Latins, or Romans, 

The Celtic peoples two thousand years ago were 
a most important group in Central and Western 
Europe ; their living representatives are the High- 
land Scotch, the Irish, the Manx, the Welsh, and 
the natives of French Brittany. 

The Teutonic peoples in ancient times included 
many different groups, the more important being 
the Goths, the Vandals, the Angles, and Saxons, 
the Danes, the Norsemen, the Franks, and the Lorn- 



140 THE SLAVONIC STOCK. 

bards. These divisions are made on linguistic data, 
and most of them no longer exist. The Gothic 
language is no longer spoken. In Iceland and the 
Faroe Islands, however, the old language of the 
Scandinavians is still used, and on the continent has 
given origin to the Dano-Norwegian and the Swed- 
ish. At the present time the Teutonic stock of 
nations may be divided into two main branches : 
,the Scandinavian, including the Danes, Swedes, 
Norwegians and Icelanders ; and the Germanic, 
embracing the Germans and the inhabitants of 
Switzerland, the Netherlands, the Flemings of Bel- 
gium; also the descendants of the Angles, the 
Saxons and the Jutes in Great Britain, together 
with their descendants, the EngHsh-speaking people 
of the world. 

The Slavonic stock, or the Slavs, inhabited 
Europe from early prehistoric times. The earliest 
historic notices represent them as inhabiting the 
region about the Carpathians, from which section 
they spread northward to the Baltic, westward to 
the Elbe and the Saal, and, after the overthrow of 
the Huns, southward to the Danube, and over the 
peninsula between the Adriatic and the Black Sea. 
They are represented by the early writers as an in- 
dustrious people, devoted mainly to agriculture and 
the rearing of flocks and herds; they were peaceful 
and hospitable, resorting to war only as a means of 
defense when they were compelled to do so. The 
descendants of the Slavs living at the present time 
are the Rtcssians, the Ruthenians, the Poles, the 
Czechs, the Bulgarians, and the Wends or Sorbs, 
dwelling in Saxony and Prussia. 



THE INDIC GROUP. I4I 

The Lithuanic stock, which includes the Letts, 
dwelling on the shores of the Baltic Sea, are com- 
paratively few in number, but are of importance, 
mainly on account of the fact that they are supposed 
to be the oldest people of Aryac stock living at the 
present time. 

The Albanian stock inhabit a portion of Western 
Turkey along the Adriatic Sea. Their language is 
said to represent an isolated form of Aryan speech. 
They are but little more than half civilized, and 
have occupied a rather inconspicuous place in his- 
tory. The Albanians are considered to be de- 
scended from the ancient Illyria7ts. 

The Armenian peoples have been known under 
this name since the time of Herodotus and prob- 
ably earlier, but their early history is largely veiled 
in obscurity. The modern Armenians are found in 
nearly all of the Turkish provinces, and also in 
Russia, Persia and India. 

The Iranic peoples in ancient times comprised 
the Baktrians and Persians. Their modern repre- 
sentatives are the Persians, some of the tribes of 
Afghanistan, Luristan, Kurdistan, and the Ossetes, 
dwelling in the valleys of the Caucasus. Many of 
these people in times gone by occupied important 
positions in the history of the race, especially the 
Baktrians, whose language was the Zend. 

The Indie group inhabit an extensive region of 
Southern Asia, which, second to that of China, is 
the most thickly populated area on earth. It has 
been estimated that this population began over 
4,000 years ago. The earliest form of Aryac speech 



142 THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 

found in India is the Vedic. Later, through the 
cultivation of grammatical and phonetic studies, the 
Sanscrit resulted. At present there are many dif- 
ferent tribes and castes inhabiting the great Indian 
peninsula, the forms of speech spoken by them pre- 
senting numerous diversities. Brahminism and 
Buddhism originated in India. The former is pan- 
theistic and still has numerous followers ; the latter 
is theoretically atheistic, and at the present time 
has more adherents than any other religious system. 
The Caucasic peoples inhabit mainly the Caucasus 
Mountains, which extend from the Black Sea to the 
Caspian; the general direction of this mountain 
range is west-northwest to east-southeast. The 
length is about 750 miles, extending from the 
Peninsula of Taman on the Black Sea, to th^ 
Peninsula of Apsheron on the Caspian. The breadth 
is about 150 miles, but that of the higher Caucasus 
is not over 70 miles. This region is Asiatic in char- 
acter, although it is sometimes referred to as part 
of the boundary between Asia and Europe. The 
higher and central portions of this range are con- 
nected by a series of elevated plateaus, which are 
intersected by fissures of great depth. At the upper 
portion of the range these mountains diminish in 
height, those along the shores of the Black Sea 
being only about 200 feet high. Some portions are 
without forests, while other regions are extensively 
covered with woods. In certain portions grain is 
grown at a height of 8,000 feet, and in the lower 
valleys rice, tobacco and cotton are produced. As 
might be expected, the climate of the northern and 
southern slopes differs considerably. 



THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. I43 

The term Caucasian, as applied to the inhabitants 
of this region, was introduced by Blumenbach, who 
made it one of the fundamental ethnological divi- 
sions of mankind. Later ethnologists, however, do 
not give these people such important status, but 
consider them to be merely one of the important 
divisions of the North Mediterranean branch of the 
White race. The name Caucasian, when applied 
to the White race in general, is clearly a mis- 
nomer, although usage has, to an extent, given it 
sanction. 

The Caucasus has been occupied by man since 
paleolithic times, as is recognized from human re- 
mains which have been found in a cave thirty miles 
from Kutais. The people inhabiting this region at 
the present time present great diversities, particu- 
larly linguistic differences. Many of the languages 
spoken are totally distinct from each other, and, 
with a single exception, do not present affinities 
with other tongues. When the Romans endeavored 
to explore the region it was necessary for them to 
obtain the assistance of seventy interpreters. The 
Lesghians, the Avars, the Galgaz, the Kishi, the 
Tushi, the Karabulaks, the Kurinz, and a number 
of other tribes occupy Daghestan, or the northern 
slope of the eastern Caucasus. Their westerly 
neighbors comprise the Circassians, the Abkhastans, 
the Kabards, the Shapsukhs, and others. The 
Georgian tribes have probably the oldest culture, 
and the beauty of their women is renowned. The 
Ossetes or Ossetians living in the centre of the Cau- 
casus, on the slopes about Kazbek, are considered 
to be a people of Aryan origin. 



CHAPTER VI. 

THE INSULAR PEOPLES. 

Contents. — The Malays. The Hovas. The Polynesians. The 
Maoris. The Tongas. The Tahitians. The Pomotonans. 
The Marquesans. Inhabitants of the Philippine Islands. The 
Tagalas. The Bisayas. The Ilocanes. The Pampangos. The 
Igorrotes. The Tingianes. The Apayos. The Bogobos. The 
Samals. The Andamanese. The Papuans. The Fijians. The 
Melanesians. Australia and the Australians. The Tasmanians. 

THE many islands of the great oceans are inhab- 
ited by various peoples, sometimes presenting 
great diversities and showing evidences of various 
ethnic relationship, but as a rule resembling most 
closely those races inhabiting the continent they are 
geographically nearest to. 

The Malays inhabit the peninsula of Malacca, the 
islands of Java, Borneo, Sumatra and the Celebes, 
and are found, in fact, on almost all of the islands 
from Madagascar to Eastern Island. Through all 
of this great area they present physical and linguistic 
afHnities which bind them all together in one large 
group and indicate for them one common origin. 

The average Malay is of medium stature, with a 
rather lithe and active body; the eyes are somewhat 
obHque, the cheek bones are prominent, the nose 
is rather flat, the hair is black, and the beard is 
scanty. The complexion varies from an olive shade 
to a brown color. The Malay type may be said to 

(144) 



THE MALAYS. 145 

possess such characteristics as to at once identify it 
as being Mongoloid in character. 

In their habits the Malays may be energetic or 
indolent. They are reckless, careless and cruel, 
having very little interest in civilization, and place 
very little value on human life or property. They 
are very revengeful, and have neither honor nor 
gratitude, and are without respect for veracity. The 
Malay, however, has considerable intelligence, and 
his love of gold has made him a daring navigator, 
his expeditions frequently combining the duties of 
explorer, merchant or pirate, just as circumstances 
may develop. 

The island of Madagascar is inhabited by three 
groups of people, the Hovas^ the Malagasies and 
the Sakalavas, The Hovas occupy Imerina; they 
are savages, or at the best barbarians; some of them 
are agriculturists, while others among them are 
shepherds and traders. They are generally consid- 
ered to be of Malay stock, but as to this there is 
much difference of opinion. Dr. Deniker considers 
that the Hovas arrived in Madagascar only seven or 
eight centuries ago, but what evidence there is to 
support such an opinion he does not state. The 
Malagasies inhabit especially the east coast region 
of the island, and they are all decidedly negroid in 
character. The Sakalavas are quite generally dis- 
tributed over the island, and many different tribes 
of them are recognized all of which vary more or 
less in character and culture, from savagery to bar- 
barism. Many and divergent have been the views 
expressed as to when and from whence Madagascar 

10 



146 THE MALAYS. 

was first populated by human beings, and it seems 
to be exceedingly doubtful that the time will ever 
be even very closely approximated. 

The coast region of Borneo has for centuries been 
occupied by Malays, except in the northeastern part 
where the Bajans, the Sulus, and the Illanuns 
dwell. The interior of the island is inhabited by 
the Dyaks, which occupy a very inferior position in 
the scale of human development. Many of their 
customs are very curious, and some of them are 
very revolting. They are ''head-hunters" and can- 
nibals, it being considered among them that the 
greatest trophy of war is to bring home the head of 
the dead enemy. They dwell in the communal state, 
and their religion is idolatry, their gods being made 
of wood. The Dyaks practice different forms of 
self-mutilation, such as lengthening their ear-lobes, 
filling their teeth, and extracting their eyebrows. 
Human sacrifice is also practiced by these people. 
Some of them give attention to agriculture. 

Linguistically the Malays may be separated from 
the Asiatic Mongolians, as all of their languages 
belong to the Malayo-Polynesian family, extending 
across the Indian and the Pacific Oceans from 
Madagascar to Easter Island, and from New Zealand 
north to the Hawaiian Islands. 

The island of Sumatra is peopled by the inde- 
pendent tribes of the Battas dwelling in the north ; 
and the Kubu, and the Lubu, in the south. All of 
these people are savages, and most of them are 
cannibals, although they do devote some of their 
time to agricultural pursuits. The coast region of 



THE POLYNESIANS. I47 

the island is occupied by various tribes, some of 
them being the Menangkaban, the Achinese, the 
Palenbangs, the Rejangs, the PassumahSy and also 
the Malays. 

In the western portion of the island of Java dwell 
the Sundanese, and in the eastern portion are the 
Javanese. Both of these peoples possess consider- 
able intelligence. The ancient language of the 
Javanese was the Kavi, which is to an extent pre- 
served in their sacred books. Over 2000 years ago 
it is considered that they had adopted some form of 
the Hindu religion, and under the instruction of 
Hindu teachers they became more cultured. The 
natives of Java are well-known in the east as accom- 
plished musicians. 

The Polynesian or South Sea Islands are dis- 
tributed over a large territory stretching over a hun- 
dred degrees of longitude, from New Britain to East- 
tern Island, and across seventy degrees of latitude, 
from Hawaii to Stewart's Island. The people inhabit- 
ing these many islands, probably from prehistoric 
times, are known as Polynesians, They are tall 
in stature, and are proportionally well developed. 
The complexion is olive, varying to brown. The 
features may be said to be expressive, with a rather 
high forehead and dark eyes; the mouth is well 
proportioned and the teeth are well developed. 
They have long, straight, black hair. The languages 
spoken by them present strong relationships to the 
Malayan, and their traditions point to the west as 
the direction from which their ancestors came. That 
other blood besides that of the Malay is present in 
them cannot be doubted. 



148 THE POLYNESIANS. 

In some respects the Polynesians can be consid- 
ered to be an improvement over the Malays ; they 
are more trustworthy. They build canoes and are 
excellent navigators. They catch fish, but do very 
little hunting. They depend also on the cocoanut 
groves and certain tuberous plants, as the sv^eet 
potato and the taro. Their domestic animals are 
the dog and the pig, both of v^hich were probably 
introduced at a comparatively recent date. Their 
weapons of war consisted of the spear, the sling and 
the war-club; their implements of stone were pol- 
ished. Cooking was largely done by means of 
heated stones. Their dwellings were usually built 
of brush and leaves, although on some of the islands 
stone buildings have been found. 

The religion of the Polynesians is polytheistic, 
and they worship the powers of nature personified. 
The " taboo " is an important matter with them ; 
the word expresses an interdiction, the object struck 
being supposed to at once be placed under the con- 
trol of a divinity. 

The inhabitants of all of the different groups of 
islands, while all closely related, vary more or less 
in habits and customs. One of the most important 
of these people were the Maoris, of New Zealand. 
The Friendly Islands were inhabited by the Tongas, 
Other islands were populated by the Tahzttans, the 
Pomotonans, the Marqtiesans and others. 

The Philippine Islands comprise an archipelago 
of over two thousand islands of various sizes, from 
mere rocks to large islands the size of Luzon and 
Mindanao. This archipelago extends nearly north 



INHABITANTS OF THE PHILIPPINES. I49 

and south, and is situated in 4^-21"^ north latitude 
and Ii7'^--i27° east longitude. The islands are 
mountainous and volcanic. 

The inhabitants of the Philippine Islands are of 
mixed blood of diverse ethnic elements, so that the 
problem of tracing these people to their original 
primitive stocks becomes a very difficult matter. 
A. H. Keane, quoting Dr. Montano and Professor 
Blumentritt, considers that the original primitive 
population of this archipelago consisted of Negritos; 
afterwards, still, however, in prehistoric times, a 
Malay invasion occured, and this intermingling con- 
tinued until the arrival of the Spaniards in the six- 
teenth century; following them, and possibly pre- 
ceding them, were the Chinese, and it is also 
probable that at various times there has been an 
introduction of Polynesian blood. 

The tribes inhabiting this region are numerous 
and of various names, some of the important ones 
being the Tagalas, the Bisayas, the Ilocanes, the 
Pampangos, the Igorrotes, the Tingia^tes, the Apa- 
yos, the Bogobos and the Sa7nals, 

As to the number of inhabitants in the Philip- 
pines, Prof, Dean C. Worcester says : '' The total 
population of the archipelago is not definitely 
known, as census returns are necessarily inaccurate, 
but it is usually estimated at from eight to ten 
millions. It is divided between more than eighty 
distinct tribes, which, for purposes of discussion, 
may be conveniently grouped as Negritos, Moham- 
medan Malays, pagan Malays, and civilized Malays.'' 

The Andaman Islands, which are situated in the 



150 THE ANDAMANESE. 

eastern portion of the Bay of Bengal, are a thickly- 
wooded group, and are inhabited by a people known 
as the Andamanese, They belong to the lower 
type of human development. In height they are 
usually below five feet; their complexion varies 
from a dark brown to a black; their hair is crisp 
and woolly; they are beardless, and have very little 
hair distributed over the body. They have no 
settled abodes, but go from island to island, living 
upon fruits, fish, and the products of the chase. 
They present the essential characteristics of the 
Negrito, and have been described by Flower as 
presenting an infantile negro type. 

They are essentially of the same temperament as 
are the other insular peoples which are related to 
the true African blacks. Our knowledge as to their 
religious beliefs is very vague, but it seems that 
they believe in a supreme being, which is considered 
by them to reside in a large stone house in the sky, 
and who possesses a universal knowledge of all 
things during the daylight. At night all objects 
are possessed, and their destinies are controlled by 
other supreme beings. There are a number of 
tribal groups among the Andamanese, and each 
speaks a different modification of their language; 
their languages in general are not considered to 
show any positive affinities with any other tongue. 

The Papuans inhabit New Guinea, the Pelew and 
Solomon Islands, the New Hebrides, New Caledo- 
nia and the Fiji group. A characteristic feature 
presented by the Papuans is their great quantity of 
black, long, wooly hair, which grows more or less 



THE PAPUANS. I5I 

over the arms, breasts and legs, but which is par- 
ticularly abundant on the head and face. Their lips 
are thick, their nostrils are broad, and their legs are 
thin. The color of their skin varies from dark 
brown to black. In different portions of their habi- 
tat they present considerable variation and are gen- 
erally considered to be of mixed blood. 

The Papuans of New Guinea occupy a low stage 
of development, and are noisy, talkative, inquisitive, 
and of a restless disposition. In color they vary 
from a coal-black to a dark brown ; they have wooly 
hair, and there is a considerable quantity of it on 
the body and face. They are on an average of me- 
dium stature and their legs are thin. The physiog- 
nomy of the Papuans varies considerably. In occu- 
pation some are hunters and fishers and others are 
tillers of the soil. Their small boats are well con- 
structed, and in the navigation of them they are 
quite expert. They are all exceedingly supersti- 
tious, and the various noises of the forest are con- 
sidered to be associated with various spirits. 

In New Guinea, the Fiji Islands and New Cale- 
donia they cook in earthen vessels. The Fijians 
are familiar with the art of dyeing and stamping 
their clothing. When the Dutch sailors furnished 
the natives of Humboldt's Bay, in New Guinea, 
with pencil and paper, they were able to draw fishes 
and birds very satisfactorily. They were familiar 
with the bow and arrow. The agriculture of these 
Papuans consisted mainly in the cultivation of the 
bread-fruit tree, which they grow in their fields and 
gardens, enclosed by fences. These people have 



I $2 THE MELANESIANS. 

been well spoken of for their chastity and morality, 
also for their parental and filial affection, but in 
parts of New Guinea, New Caledonia and the Fiji 
Islands cannibalism is indulged in. They are strong 
believers in a future life, and man is supposed by 
them to continue the work in the next life which he 
abandoned in this. Their languages are said to be 
agglutinating. 

The Fijians are considered to be the best devel- 
oped people among the Papuans, this being due 
primarily, perhaps, to Polynesian influence. They 
are polite and polished conversationalists, and have 
a strong feeling of national pride. Their mythology 
is rich. They worship the dead, and the serpent is 
symbolic of the creator of the earth. Their pottery 
in red and blue clay is exquisite. Their boats some- 
times exceed one hundred feet in length, and are 
fitted with masts and sails. Their villages are forti- 
fied, and food said to be sufficient to last for a period 
of four years is stored up. 

The inhabitants of the New Hebrides, New Cale- 
donia and the Fiji Islands are sometimes referred to 
as MelanesianSy and all of these people present more 
or less evidence of a mixed type, especially eastward, 
where Polynesian relationship becomes easily recog- 
nizable. In stature they are generally taller than 
the Papuans, and their skull is more dolichocephalic, 
although there is considerable variation. In color 
they vary from the black of the Negro to the yellow 
of the Malay. Their hair is usually wooly, although 
sometimes straight hair is observed among them. 
All of these characteristics indicate quite a mixed 



THE MELANESIANS. 1 53 

relationship. The Melanesians are in occupation 
devoted mainly to agriculture, cultivating particu- 
larly the yam and the taro. They build their small, 
artistically-decorated houses on piles ; but com- 
munal residences are also used ; and in New Cale- 
donia they dwell in circular tents. Their weapons 
consist of the bow and arrow, the club, and the 
spear. They also make weapons and tools of stone, 
wood, shells, and human bones. Occasionally they 
make pottery. Their canoes, which may be either 
single or double, are well and shapely built, but 
they do not take long voyages. Melanesian women 
are said to be chaste and modest. Their religion is 
principally a form of ancestral worship, and they 
have a custom of preserving the skulls of their dead. 
The languages of the Melanesians, like their phys- 
ical characteristics, present much variation, and this 
also indicates that they are a mixed people. Not 
merely do the inhabitants of the various islands 
speak different languages, but also in the same 
island different dialects and also different languages 
are sometimes spoken. 

The largest island in existence, and which is fre- 
quently referred to as a continent, is Australia. In 
area it is nearly twenty-five times as large as Great 
Britain and Ireland. This land is described as be- 
ing exceedingly compact, and on the eastern and 
western shores presents an almost unbroken out- 
line. The absence of rivers of importance com- 
municating between the ocean and the interior of 
the island is characteristic, and has, without doubt, 
affected greatly the distribution of life in this 



154 THE AUSTRALIANS. 

region. Australia lies almost wholly within the 
temperate zone, and, as a rule, enjoys a most 
equable climate, although at times there are great 
irregularities, due largely to the variability in the 
rainfall in all parts of this island-continent. At 
times there are periods of drought, and at other 
times there are seasons of flood. The flora of this 
region is extensive and characteristic, there having 
been described up to the present time about 8,000 
species of plants, considerably more than has been 
found in the whole of Europe. The animals here 
found constitute the most unique group at present 
living. Those forms of mammals common in other 
regions are here totally wanting, while those pouch- 
bearing mammals, the marsupials, are well repre- 
sented. Another group characteristic of Australia 
is the order Monotremata, which includes that 
curious animal, the Duck-bill. 

As the plants and animals of this land are to an 
extent isolated and peculiar, so are the human in- 
habitants to a lesser extent characteristic. Physical 
conditions which are favorable for the development 
of such peculiar types in the lower forms of animals 
certainly were not conducive to the improvement of 
man. 

In height the Australian is slightly below the 
average European, but is of a slighter and feebler 
build ; the lower extremities are poorly developed, 
and the muscles of the calf of the leg are small. 
The skull, as a rule, is dolichocephalic. The nose 
comes from a narrow base, but broadens out. The 
cheek-bones are high. The mouth is large, and the 



THE AUSTRALIANS. 1 55 

teeth are well developed, the third molars frequently 
possessing three separate fangs. The complexion 
is described to be of a dark coffee-brown color. 
The whole person, and especially the head and face, 
is covered with a profuse growth of hair. 

While the Australians probably owe their origin 
to several ethnic influences, the dominant and fund- 
amental characteristics in them seem to be negroid, 
although they differ in the character of their hair, 
which is not woolly nor frizzly, but rather curly, 
wavy and sometimes bushy. Relative to them Prof. 
F. Ratzel says : '' In their cast of features may be 
recognized an intermediate stage between negroes 
and Malays, what is called a hybrid physiognomy. 
We are reminded of the Malay by the straight 
rather than woolly hair, the prominent cheek-bones, 
the light brown or reddish tint of the skin ; of the 
negro by the prominent eyebrows, the flat nose, the 
thick lips, the prognathous jaws." 

Although there may be some certain minor differ- 
ences the Australians present great uniformity in 
their physical characteristics. This is also indicated 
by their languages which all belong to the same 
linguistic group, and which seem to have no 
affinity with any other linguistic group. These 
languages are agglutinative, and by the addition of 
suffixes the words are variously modified. Among 
the Australians, particularly between the different 
tribes, gesture language is sometimes used. Their 
intellectual development is generally considered to 
be quite low. 

The energies of the native Australians were 



156 THE AUSTRALIANS. 

mainly directed to gaining food for their suste- 
nance. They exhibit great skill in tracking and 
running down their prey, and while their weapons 
are primitive, consisting mainly of the spear and 
the boomerang, they are quite well adapted for their 
purposes. The Australian has no architecture, very 
little weaving, no pottery, and hardly any religion. 
His art is limited to a few crude drawings of ani- 
mals on the rocks and in the caves. When Australia 
first became known to Europeans the natives seem 
to have been in the paleolithic stone age. The 
man is absolute owner of the woman in their soci- 
ety, buying and selling her as he would his spear or 
boomerang. The old and infirm are abandoned to 
their fate, and cannibalism is common. They live 
mainly in roving tribes, and, except for a few loose 
family ties, there is no government. Their language 
is primitive, and their vocabulary, while small, is 
fairly well expressive. They are said to acquire 
words from foreign languages with facility. Sick- 
ness and death are supposed to be caused by evil 
spirits, and the sorcery of the priest or magician is 
frequently resorted to. It is considered that a man 
that dies in battle, or is unburied in a field, becomes 
an evil spirit. Food is sometimes placed on the 
graves of the dead, and ceremonies of mourning are 
sometimes carried out. Sometimes the dead are 
burned. While their culture is primitive, it is im- 
portant to note that they have a conception of writing 
in their ''message sticks," on which they incise a 
series of notches, lines and figures, and thus send 
information. Their hospitality, as exhibited by the 



THE TASMANIANS. I57 

half-Starved tribes of Cooper's Creek to the last 
survivor of Burke's expedition, should always be 
kindly remembered. 

The aborigines of Tasmania are now an extinct 
people; the last male died in the year 1869, and the 
last female in 1876. 

They were so far as anthropologists are able to 
determine never a very numerous people; it having 
been estim.ated that probably they never exceeded 
5000 individuals, although, necessarily, this is prob- 
lematical. They first became known to the White 
race through the early French explorers, and, later, 
the early English settlers. The Tasmanians were 
not at all reconciled to the advances made into their 
territory by the Europeans, and hence the cruel and 
bloody war of extermination of the natives began. 
In the year 1830 an effort was made to save them 
from extinction, and many of them were induced to 
come into a settlement where they were provided 
for ; but the efifort was made too late, and hence 
these people have slowly but surely faded from the 
face of the earth. The Tasmanians were of a most 
inferior type of humanity, being savage, treacherous 
and untamable. Evidence seems to indicate, almost 
without doubt, that they were the same people as 
the Australians, only, if possible, occupying a lower 
stage of development and a different geographical 
position. 



CHAPTER VIL 

THE DEVELOPMENT OF CULTURE. 

Contents.-— The early condition of man, physically and mentally. 
His necessities. Origin of culture. Implements and weapons, 
paleolithic and neolithic. Food. Fire. Language. Writing. 
Environment. 

IT is exceedingly difficult, if not impossible, for us 
to conceive of the many difficulties and adversi- 
ties which must have beset primitive man at the 
time of his origin or of his differentiation as man. 
Entirely without any of the later methods which 
served for the accomplishment of his necessities, 
comforts, and advantages, early man surpassed those 
animals with which he was contemporaneous in 
mainly one important particular, and that was in 
the development of his brain. 

He was superior mentally in all respects to the 
lower animals, and this single point of superiority, 
along with the structural development of the human 
hand, gave him the great advantage which he has 
since maintained and increased, and which has re- 
sulted in the great progress made by the human 
species in all of its various aspects of development. 

In the origin and development of any special line 
of culture among any people, there are, it seems 
to me, two important factors or causes in sug- 
gesting and developing that culture, to which, so 
far as I know, attention has not been previously 
directed. These are, internally , the mind itself, 

(158) 



PRIMITIVE CULTURE. I59 

which must be sufficiently developed to recognize 
'hat it is possible to invent new methods for the 
accomplishment of particular purposes; and, ex- 
ternally, the environment which suggests and ren- 
ders this accomplishment possible or necessary. 
Without either capable mind or suitable environ- 
ment culture cannot develop, and, conversely, with 
capable mind and suitable environment culture will 
inevitably result, and it is not at all remarkable that 
it does so. 

The earliest members of the human family per- 
haps lived in the forests near or in the tropical 
regions of the old world. Their homes were prob- 
ably in caves, or under trees, or protruding rocks, 
or any other location which might afford them 
shelter from the elements and animals with which 
they were contemporaneous; many of the latter, 
without doubt, made the life of man most hazardous. 

Food and, possibly, clothing were among his 
earliest necessities ; the former being of course im- 
perative, and the latter adopted as climatic condi- 
tions and purposes of personal adornment might 
suggest. The quest for food must at times have 
been severe. As to the character of food preferred 
by primitive man we cannot tell, except, we do 
know that man at the present time prefers and 
seems usually to prosper best on a mixed diet of 
both animal and vegetable food, and as nearly as 
can be determined this has been the character of 
diet used from the earhest times of human existence. 

Agriculture, of course, at this time had probably 
not even begun, and such vegetable products as 



l60 PRIMITIVE IMPLEMENTS. 

were utilized as dietetic articles must have been 
selected rather promiscuously, guided probably very 
largely by the sense of taste. It is likely that ani- 
mal food was depended largely upon, and the ob- 
taining of it must necessarily have been one of the 
most important industries of primitive man. Vari- 
ous snares, such as traps and pitfalls, were probably 
used to capture animals. Weapons of offense and 
defense were likewise resorted to, many of them 
being the inception of those which, variously modi- 
fied and improved upon, are still in use at the pres- 
ent time. The first weapon used by man was prob- 
ably a stone or a stick or a club wielded or thrown 
by the hand and arm. The latter method, that is, 
of throwing, constituted an advancement confined 
to man, for man is the only animal that can intelli- 
gently attack an enemy without coming into direct 
contact with it, as is the case when weapons are 
used. The only possible exception that can be taken 
to this is, that it has been alleged that some of the 
anthropoid apes have been observed to defend them- 
selves by the throwing of missiles. 

Man has been designated by some to be a ** tool- 
using animal,'' and in this particular he differs from 
all of the lower animals. 

The most primitive form of implement is one that 
has been formed by natural agencies other than 
man, but which at the same time may be used by 
man as either a weapon of defense or offense. This 
is well illustrated, as we have just seen, by the stick, 
club or stone hurled from the hand at the object of 
attack. 



PRIMITIVE IMPLEMENTS. l6l 

In the evolution of defense and attack probably 
the first of all weapons were sticks and stones. If 
the stick were a heavy one it became a cudgel ; if it 
were knobbed on one end it constituted a club or 
so-called war-club, which is such an important 
weapon among all primitive peoples, and from 
which evolved the spear used by various savages, 
and which compares very favorably with the bayo- 
nets used by modern civilized warriors in piercing 
down those who differ from them on some political 
question. 

Man at the earliest period of his existence prob- 
ably used many stone weapons and implements. 
The earliest of this character would be a stone of 
convenient size and shape which could be hurled at 
an enemy, or others which could be conveniently 
used in grinding his food, or for making and sharp- 
ening other implements of wood and stone in such 
ways that different utilitarian purposes might be 
accomplished by them. Stone was used to chip 
stone, and suitable portions were bound tightly to 
the end of sticks, thus improving on the primitive 
war-club, and resulting in the devising of the 
hatchet, the hammer, the axe and the tomahawk of 
the American Indians. 

The implement of this character, possessing a 
sharp edge adapted for cutting, shows a higher 
development than the one merely adapted for hit- 
ting or hammering, and illustrates those imple- 
ments which by archaeologists are termed chipped, 
and which are of such great interest to those study- 
ing the remains of the workmanship of early man. 
II 



l62 NEOLITHIC AND PALEOLITHIC IMPLEMENTS. 

This method of chipping and flaking stones is the 
foundation of stone implement-making which has 
been so universally employed by the various peoples 
of the world at different periods of their early de- 
velopment. These implements have been found in 
the gravel deposits of the quaternary period, and 
were used by the oldest known of all peoples in- 
habiting Europe. 

At a later period of human development these 
implements were not merely chipped, but were also 
polished, and thus evolved the so-called neolithic 
stone implements, the older non-polished imple- 
ments being A^Xiomm^X^^ paleolithic. 

At a later period various peoples became ac- 
quainted with some of the metals, and then orig- 
inated the implements of copper, bronze and iron, 
which in the main were patterned after their earlier 
implements which had been made of stone and of 
wood. 

The bow and arrow have been used by primitive 
peoples from very early times, but as to the origin 
of the bow there is very little known. The arrow 
is modified from the spear, and the art of feathering 
the arrow goes back beyond our earliest written 
history. Various kinds of bows have been made, 
the most complex of which, but not necessarily the 
most efifective, was the so-called cross-bow, which 
was used in Europe during the sixth century. 

Another weapon used by early man was the blow- 
pipe, which had quite a simple origin, but which in 
reality was the inception of the fire-arm, which has 
since wielded such influence in the affairs of men. 



PRIMITIVE WEAPONS. 163 

With pellets made of suitable material and small 
darts as ammunition, some of the Indian tribes of 
the South American forests, the so-called hunting 
tribes, found the blow-pipe to be of great service in 
the shooting of small game, and even in war this 
weapon was to an extent used by them, the points 
of the darts being frequently covered with Curari 
poison. Some of these blow-pipes are from eight 
to twelve feet in length, with the calibre almost 
large enough to admit the end of the little finger. 
The stem of a small palm tree or reed is used in the 
manufacture of them. 

The arrows used are sometimes from fifteen to 
eighteen inches in length, and are sharply pointed 
and so notched as to break off in the wound. In 
Peru, arrows as small as one and one-half or two 
inches in length have been used ; they were likewise 
poisoned, and it is said that accidental wounds have 
proven fatal. 

In many portions of the Malay archipelago the 
natives have long used the blow-pipe. In Borneo 
the Dyaks have an iron spear-head which they are 
able to attach to the end of their blow-pipe and 
thus convert it into a spear. When it is used as a 
blow-pipe their arrows are small, and are tipped 
with a piece of pith which corresponds in size with 
the calibre of their blow-pipe. In the pith are 
placed sharp fish-teeth, and these are poisoned with 
upas juice, which when thus used has proven fatal 
to man when shot from a distance of forty yards 
away. 

After the invention of gun-powder the principle 



164 FOOD. 

of the blow-pipe became so modified as to be used 
in connection therewith. Instead of a reed an iron 
barrel was used, and the expulsive power, instead 
of being air-expelled from the chest, was gun-pow- 
der. The near end of the iron barrel was closed ; 
a touch-hole was made, through which by bringing 
fire in contact with the powder the explosion was 
accomplished. 

The quest for food is perhaps the most necessary 
occupation of all animal forms, and it is probable 
that mankind originated in a region where the food 
supply was such that it could be obtained without 
any very great difficulty. The tropical regions in 
all parts of the world are especially rich in their 
fauna and flora, and in these regions many varieties 
of vegetable and animal foods are available with very 
little effort. 

The dentition and habits of man from the earliest 
time indicate that a mixed diet of both vegetable 
and animal food is the nourishment best adapted to 
his needs. 

Among the tropical dietetic plants, perhaps the 
most important to mankind have been those in- 
cluded in the order Palmacecs, or the palm family. 
A few of them are found outside of the tropics. 
Many of them possess stems which when young and 
tender make palatable and nutritious food, and when 
matured yield farinaceous substances. From many 
a sweet sap, taken by incision, sugar, spirits and 
vinegar may be made. 

In the tropics of South America the Guilelma 
speciosa, which bears the pupunhas, which resem- 



FOOD. 165 

bles somewhat the apricot or egg-plant, is much 
esteemed by the natives. The forests of the Amazon 
region furnish the BraziHan chestnut {Bertholletia 
excelsa), the Sapodilla plum {Achras sapota), the 
Avocado pear {Pei^sea gratissima), the cocoa and 
the pineapple. 

In central Africa the natives eat largely of the 
nuts of the doom palm {Hyphaena thebaicd). 
Throughout Polynesia many of the various bread- 
fruit trees are found, from which the natives so 
largely partake. Nearly all portions of the surface 
of the earth furnish some edible plants, which grow 
upon hillside, valley or plain. 

The various cereals found in different parts of the 
world have been used as food from the earliest 
times, as have Hkewise many roots, berries and nuts. 

Many varieties of animals have been and are still 
used for eating among different peoples. Those 
first so used were probably those which were most 
easily procured, such as insects, birds, reptiles and 
the smaller mammals. Fishing probably developed 
later, and the spearing of fish is extensively prac- 
ticed in nearly all regions where mankind exists. 
The natives of the inhospitable shores of Terra del 
Fuego feed almost exclusively on fish and on shell- 
fish, and the heaps of shells and fish-bones which 
have accumulated in this region as a result is said 
to be quite extensive. Such shell-heaps, or kitchen- 
middens, have been found in many regions, those of 
Denmark being especially famous on account of 
their association with early European man. 

One of the greatest discoveries made by primitive 



l66 FIRE. 

man was a method for the production of fire, for by 
the aid of fire matter may be modified in a variety 
of ways so as to be more perfectly adapted to the 
requirements of the human species. By means of 
fire the surrounding temperature is modified to suit 
our comfort, and our food is Hkewise cooked. Fire 
has been used as a protection from various savage 
animals with which man has had to contend in many 
parts of the world. Canoes have been constructed 
by hollowing out the trunks of trees by means of 
fire. The artificial ash-heaps of very early date that 
have been found in various portions of the world, 
associated with other evidences, seem to indicate 
that all of the various branches of the primitive 
human family had a knowledge of fire and its uses 
and artificial production. 

The manner by which early man first became ac- 
quainted with fire is, and necessarily always will be, 
a matter of conjecture. It seems probable, how- 
ever, that the fires produced by the elements of 
nature, such as that from lightning and volcanic 
eruptions, may have been utilized; and gradually 
these sources failing or becoming insufficient to 
meet the necessary demands, the primitive people 
finally discovered methods by which fire might be 
produced at will. That friction produces heat is 
illustrated in all cold climates by the way in which 
most persons are accustomed to rub their hands 
together in order to keep them warm. In many 
portions of the world the natives have produced 
fire on exactly this principle, only instead of rubbing 
the hands together they have used dry sticks of 



FIRE. 167 

various kinds of wood. The difficulties attending 
the production of fire by means of friction are very 
great, and that early man acquired this knowledge 
and was able to accomplish it is truly very wonder- 
ful, and yet we positively know that many tribes in 
various portions of the earth have from very early 
times, and still do, utilize this method. 

The inhabitants of Polynesia have a most primi- 
tive method, which is still in use, for producing fire. 
A piece of wood is grooved, and in this groove a 
stick is rubbed backwards and forwards with suffi- 
cient force and rapidity until it commences to glow, 
and when enough heat or fire is thus generated, 
some soft, inflammable, dry substance, as some veg- 
etable fabric, is brought in contact with the glow, 
and thus a flame is produced. In certain parts of 
South America the natives bound together two 
pieces of wood, and between these a stick was rap- 
idly revolved with sufficient force until a glow or a 
flame was produced. Other people, however, dis- 
covered that two sticks bound together were un- 
necessary, and that one piece of wood with a suit- 
able depression would answer the same purpose, 
and that in this depression the second stick could 
be rapidly revolved and produce fire. This consti- 
tutes the fire-drill which has been familiar to many 
peoples in various portions of the world for ages 
past. It was known to the Indians of North, Cen- 
tral and South America ; it was used by the Bush- 
men, Hottentots and other tribes in south Africa; 
by the natives of Ceylon, and also by the natives of 
Australia. Geographically these peoples were so far 



l68 LANGUAGie. 

separated that it is not possible that the knowledge 
of the fire-drill could have spread from one to the 
other of them, and therefore we are compelled to 
conclude that this indicates an independent develop- 
ment of culture along similar lines, necessitated by 
the demands made by a similarity of environment on 
peoples sufficiently qualified mentally to respond 
thereto. This same principle we see illustrated in 
many different phases by the early peoples of vari- 
ous parts of the earth, sometimes separated by broad 
seas, vast mountain chains and mighty forests, mak- 
ing in some instances communication between them 
very improbable. 

There are not at the present time, and so far as 
is known there never were, any people without lan- 
guage. The faculty of speech is the result of both 
physical and psychical causes, and the sounds which 
human beings are able to give expression to by 
means of the voice for the conveyance of ideas to 
other individuals constitutes language. 

Language is, so far as can be positively deter- 
mined, limited to the human species, although by 
some it has been suspected to exist in some of the 
lower animals. That many of the lower animals are 
able to communicate with one another is true, but 
this communication, for many reasons, cannot be 
considered language in the sense in which human 
beings communicate with each other. 

In the development of the languages of the vari- 
ous peoples of the world two factors are of especial 
importance, the one being the human mind, with 
vocal structures able to produce sounds, and the 



LANGUAGE. 169 

Other being the environment. The operations of 
the mind result in thought pertaining to matter 
suggested by the individual or by the environment 
or by both, and the expansion of the same by means 
of the organs of the voice results in language. 

By the study of words and sentences, linguists 
have been able to reduce the languages spoken by 
mankind to the three following groups or types : The 
monosyllabic, the polysyllabic or agglutinative, and 
the inflective. In the monosyllabic group the words 
are all roots, and there are no modifications by the 
use of prefixes or suffixes. This form of speech is 
illustrated by the Chinese language and its dialects. 

The polysyllabic or agglutinative group is where 
words are formed of several elements which are so 
brought together as to modify the root sound in the 
expression of the idea, as by the use of prefixes and 
suffixes. The idioms of the American aborigines, 
the Basques, the Berbers and the Finnish languages 
illustrate this. 

The inflective group of languages includes those 
in which the root form may be modified to express 
its relations to another root form. The Semitic and 
the Aryan languages belong to this class ; only two 
European languages are here not included. 

It has been estimated that there are about one 
thousand distinct languages. These did not origin- 
ate separately, although in many instances there are 
groups of languages which indicate that they prob- 
ably originated from one common ancestral tongue. 
A group of this character is designated to be a 
family, and is admirably illustrated by the Romance 



I/O LANGUAGE. 

family of languages, which includes, among others, 
the French, the Spanish and the Italian, all of 
which originated from, or are descended from, the 
Latin, the language of ancient Rome. 

Language has been, and still is, of much service 
to the ethnologist in the classification of some of 
the various divisions of mankind. This is especially 
true in those instances where physical criteria can- 
not be found in the peoples compared, owing to the 
fact that the resemblances existing between them 
are so strong that sufficient physical data for pur- 
poses of differentiation does not exist. This is espe- 
cially true of the American Indian tribes, which as 
a rule present such strong uniformity of physical 
type throughout the whole of North, Central and 
South America, with perhaps a few slight excep- 
tions. Here language is resorted to as a means of 
classification ; it is about the best method available 
in arranging these peoples, although it is not an 
altogether satisfactory guide. 

It must not, however, be inferred that similarity 
of language necessarily indicates relationship, for 
such is not always so. Frequently, for example, 
Chinese or Africans are found that are able to speak 
good English, although of course there is no blood 
relationship. Instances have occurred where in w^ar 
one group of people have made a conquest of an- 
another group which spoke a different language. 
In an instance of this character the languages of 
the conquerors and the vanquished are likely to 
undergo modification, although there may be no 
blood relationship. 



WRITING. 171 

Writing is the recording of characters on any 
substance which characters may convey ideas to the 
mind of another. 

When, where and among what people writing 
first had its origin we do not know, and it is im- 
possible that we ever will know, for the reason that 
the genesis of this art probably began unconsciously 
in the development of the human species, and after- 
wards, by the recognition of the significance of these 
unconscious signs, and by the imitation of them, 
the, in one sense, artificial and more complex meth- 
ods were adopted, and the subsequent development 
of the art became possible. In the consideration of 
the doings of primitive man from any standpoint 
there is one factor that it is especially difificult, if 
not impossible, for us to comprehend, and that is his 
mental capacity. 

As to the unconscious beginning of writing, it 
might be illustrated thus : Let us suppose, for ex- 
ample, that some primitive man or men might have 
had an encampment. This may have necessitated 
the chopping down of trees with their primitive 
stone implements for the building of huts and the 
making of their camp-fires. The forming of their 
camp thus became, to an extent, the recording of 
certain facts, although of course it was not done 
with the intention of conveying ideas to the minds 
of others; nevertheless, the camp afterwards de- 
serted, it was possible for it to convey certain facts 
and ideas to the minds of individuals who might 
arrive later. Coming to the sight of this former 
abode of early man, the ashes from their camp-fires, 



172 WRITING. 

the stumps remaining of the trees cut down, the 
underbrush broken and destroyed, all told a tale as 
clearly and as truly in many respects as could be 
done by pen. 

This being true it is certainly a legitimate deduc- 
tion that here, in illustrations such as this and many 
others that could be given, we find the suggestion 
in a perfectly natural manner that prompted the 
early members of the human species to make char- 
acters for the conveyance of ideas. 

The remaining stump of a tree, cut down for 
some utilitarian purpose, tells most plainly to later 
comers that predecessors were present. Uninten- 
tionally it furnishes positive information as to the 
presence of others in that particular region. This 
being true, it is but a step for early man to have 
recognized the possibility of intentionally communi- 
cating to his fellows by merely incising a tree, as so 
many savages still do at the present time in various 
regions of the world. 

The theory here presented as to the inception of 
writing, it seems to me, furnishes a natural explan- 
ation as to the origin of that great art, more natural 
than is the view held by, I think, all previous writers, 
that picture-writing constituted the earliest method. 
We also know that in the development of the child 
the pencil-in-hand lines are executed before pictures 
are drawn. 

Picture-writing is, however, a very old method of 
thought-recording, and many interesting and value- 
able specimens of it have been preserved. At the 
time of the discovery of America this system was in 



WRITING. 173 

very extensive use by the hunting tribes of the 
North American Indians. 

The picture of any animal, as a bear for example, 
drawn with the intention of representing that ani- 
mal only, would be a pictograph. This method of 
graphic representation of thought has been utilized 
by nearly all savage peoples in various portions of 
the world. 

A next higher stage in the development of writ- 
ing is where the picture of an animal or any other 
object is used, not to represent the animal or object 
drawn, but to represent something else other than 
the actual object drawn, as, for example, a turtle 
might be drawn to represent the earth. The pic- 
ture thus becomes symbolic. From these symbolic 
drawings of animals and other things, abbreviations 
or signs were later used, and thus instead of the 
picture or the symbol being entirely depended upon 
for the conveyance of the thought the characters 
became idiographic in character, and later, through 
the association with these, signs of certain sounds, 
the phonetic characters developed, and the gap from 
thought-writing to sound-writing may have been so 
gradually accomplished that were we able to com- 
pare complete data from one to the other it might 
seem less remarkable, and the creation of alphabets 
would probably be much more satisfactorily under- 
stood. 

It is not at all probable that any of these methods 
for the graphic representation of thought developed 
suddenly in any one place at any one time, or that 
the adoption of one method resulted in the aban- 



174 WRITING. 

donment necessarily of the others. On the other 
hand we know that in some instances at least sev- 
eral of these methods were used simultaneously in 
the same manuscripts. 

In America we find that the Aztecs of Mexico 
and the Mayas of Yucatan were the most accom- 
plished of all of the American aborigines in the art 
of writing ; both of these peoples had at the time of 
the discovery a literature of no mean character, and 
the attempts at the translation of which has since 
been a matter of much puzzling interest to students 
of American linguistics. It has been considered by 
some authorities on this subject that both the Aztecs 
and the Mayas were partly familiar with and used 
to an extent phonetic characters in their manu- 
scripts. Some have even gone so far as to attempt 
to connect these American manuscripts, with their 
curious hieroglyphic characters, with those of the 
ancient Egyptians. 

The hieroglyphic picture-writing of the ancient 
Egyptians, through the inscriptions, may be traced 
back for a period of more than six thousand years, 
to the time of the second Egyptian dynasty, when 
it had already attained great perfection, indicating 
that its origin must have been at a much earlier 
period. It comprised pictorial ideograms, which 
resulted in certain verbal phonograms, some of 
which were used as syllabic signs. About forty- 
five of the four hundred phonograms were of an 
alphabetic character associated with vocal sounds. 
The origin of our own alphabet may be traced back 
to these Egyptian signs. 



ENVIRONMENT. 1 75 

The Phoenicians, taking the Egyptian hieroglyphs 
as a basis, rejecting all unnecessary characters, 
formed the first true alphabet of which we have any 
knowledge. The first true origin of the alphabet 
was pointed out by M. de Rouge in 1859, when he 
contended that the prototypes of the Phoenician 
characters existed, not on the monuments of Egypt, 
but in the hieratic or priestly writings as found 
especially in the Papyrus Prisse, which was found 
in a tomb belonging to the eleventh dynasty. 

Many and diverse are the conditions under which 
the human species exists. In the frigid, the tem- 
perate and the torrid regions ; in the forest and on 
the plains ; in the depths of blackest savagery and 
in the highest of civilization mankind lives, and, to 
an extent, shapes the destiny of his successors. 

The environment under which living things exist 
is not a stable one, but is continually changing. 
This being true, it follows that organic forms are 
thus constantly subjected to different conditions, 
and it thus becomes necessary that they, according 
to circumstances, adapt themselves to this changing 
environment. If they are not able to so adapt 
themselves they are placed at a disadvantage in the 
struggle for life, and extinction in the case of many 
of the lower animals has occurred in consequence 
thereof. 

In the case of mankind in relation to this chang- 
ing environment we see it illustrated with the 
change of seasons. 

With the advent of winter in the temperate re- 
gions it becomes necessary for man to change those 



176 ENVIRONMENT. 

habits of living which he followed during the sum- 
mer season. He wears different clothing, lives 
more indoors, eats different food, and in a variety 
of ways he lives in the winter a different life from 
that which he follows during the sumrrier season. 
In so modifying his habits of life, according to cir- 
cumstances, he is merely adapting himself to his 
new environment. 

This principle of adaptation applies not merely to 
the individual, but also to the larger groups and 
races of mankind. 

An illustration of this may be seen in the peoples 
inhabiting the region of the Caucasus Mountains. 
These mountains, stretching for a distance of about 
750 miles between the Black Sea and the Caspian, 
instead of running in a general northern and south- 
ern direction, as the majority of great mountain 
chains do, trend in a general direction east and west. 
Their height varies greatly, ranging in places from 
250 to 10,000 feet, and in numerous ways the topo- 
graphy is extremely variable and unique. The envi- 
ronment here furnished for mankind is, therefore, a 
very diverse one. 

The peoples inhabiting the Caucasus region are 
considered to have come from about the same stock, 
but owing to the fact that the region in which they 
live presents such great physical diversities they, in 
adapting themselves to these varying and various 
conditions, have as a result developed among them- 
selves many differences in their methods of life, 
their customs and their language. 

Racial adaptation cannot be better illustrated than 



ENVIRONMENT. 177 

by considering how well the white race has adapted 
itself to the environment of America since the time 
of the discovery. 

No better illustrations of physiological and ana- 
tomical adaptation can be given than the description 
of John Hunter's experiment on the buck as nar- 
rated by the late Sir Wm. MacCormac in the Hun- 
terian Oration of 1899: ''He tells us that in July, 
1785, he had a buck thrown and tied its carotid 
artery. Immediately the pulsation in the velvet 
ceased and the antler grew cold, but on returning a 
week or two later he found warmth restored and 
the antler growing. The buck was now killed and 
sent to Leicester Square, and upon examination 
Hunter found the ligated artery obliterated and the 
circulation carried on by the other, generally small, 
vessels above and below the place of ligature, which 
had thus restored the blood current in the growing 
antler. Nevertheless, he felt uncertain whether the 
same result would occur in man, and in December, 
1785, he carefully explained the alternatives to his 
first patient, a coachman, who was suffering from 
popliteal aneurism, in St. George's Hospital. He 
told him of the usually fatal method of incision and 
evacuation of the sac, the better chance of life by 
amputation, but with loss of limb, and guided by 
his experience of the return of the circulation in the 
antler of the buck, he said he would try to save both 
his life and limb. The patient consented, and six 
weeks afterwards he left the hospital cured of the 
aneurism, although he died fifteen months after- 
wards from another malady." In this interesting 
12 



178 ENVIRONMENT* 

narrative and> at the time, wonderful experiment, 
the blood supply to the antler was cut off. Nature, 
however, through the formation of the new small 
arteries, established collateral circulation ; and thus 
resulted an adaptation to environment which saved 
the antler; and so, in many instances, the same 
principle may be illustrated. 

The relationship existing between, race, climate 
and disease is a subject which has not until very 
recently received that consideration which it de- 
serves ; now, however, the importance of the matter 
is becoming more recognized by physicians in both 
Europe and America, as is shown by the organiza- 
tion of societies for the study of tropical diseases. 

The effect of temperature on health seems to be 
the most important factor so far as climate is con- 
cerned. Most Europeans and white Americans 
from the temperate zone that go directly into the 
tropics are likely to suffer from anaemia, gastro- 
intestinal disorders, malaria, typhoid and yellow 
fevers. If the change of climate be made gradually 
the individual is more likely to be able to adapt 
himself to the new environment and thus less sub- 
ject to these diseases. 

It has been claimed that there is a relationship of 
mortaHty to the winds blowing from the north and 
east, and inverse relationship to those winds which 
come from the south and from the west. 

A change of climate may affect some organs 
favorably and at the same time other organs detri- 
mentally. For example, a climatic change may 
benefit a lung disease, but cause liver trouble. A 



EyVIROXMEXT. 1 79 

dr}', tropical climate may be conducive to health in 
permitting outdoor life and exercise and thus pro- 
mote certain factors that are conducive to health ; 
but such environment is also favorable to the develop- 
ment of the lower forms of life, including, frequently, 
those micro-organisms which are productive of dis- 
ease. It is alleged that in India during the hot, dry 
season, when small-pox is frequently extensive and 
severe, that vaccination is hardly safe, because of the 
great tendency of mixed infection occurring in con- 
nection with the vesicles resulting from the vacci- 
nation. 

Another factor concerning the health of the indi- 
vidual which must be modified by climate is exer- 
cise. In general, it is recognized that extremes of 
temperature tend to produce indolence in the indi- 
vidual, and that the greatest energ}- is usually shown 
by the inhabitants of the temperate regions. This, 
however, is dependent to a great extent upon race. 

Many recognize the importance of exercise as 
being necessar}- for health, but comparatively few, 
even among medical men, have considered the full 
importance of the subject from the biological stand- 
point, which is, that the use of an organ or struct- 
ure within reasonable limits tends to its develop- 
ment and perfection, and that, conversely, the disuse 
of an organ or structure tends to its atrophy and 
degeneration. Furthermore, if this disuse be con- 
tinued indefinitely the structures involved may be- 
come useless or may even disappear: and, in the 
case of some of the lower animals, the extinction of 
the form has resulted. 



l80 ENVIRONMENT. 

It is considered by biologists that the influences 
of environment afifect structure through function, 
and that structure is modified thereby. In the 
average man of the white race a number of illustra- 
tions of this factor can be seen. Take, for example, 
the foot. Owing to disuse the toes in civilized man 
have degenerated to such an extent that in the adult 
they have become almost functionless through our 
custom of wearing shoes. Among savage peoples, 
where shoes are not worn, this loss of function on 
the part of the toes is not observed ; and, in infants 
of the white race, there is relatively more power in 
the toes than in those of adults. 

In the case of the hand, through use, the fingers 
have improved, as is seen in many occupations 
which require that they do the most delicate work. 

The gastro-intestinal tract shows certain modifi- 
cations which have accompanied our higher civiliza- 
tion; and, that this could produce still greater 
structural changes is possible; and it should be so 
recognized. Through disuse the teeth of the white 
race are undergoing a degeneration, which all inter- 
ested in the human welfare, especially physicians, 
should recognize. In the different races of mankind 
the teeth present certain differences. Among the 
dark-skinned races they being, as a rule, larger and 
stronger than among the white. 

As the methods of food preparation in vogue 
among the higher grades of the civilized members 
of the white race have thus resulted in a disuse, which 
has been productive of an actual change of structure 
so far as the teeth are concerned, so this change 



ENVIRONMENT. l8l 

can, and to an extent has, affected the gastro- 
intestinal canal, as shown by some investigations 
among the French, which indicate that a narrowing 
of the intestinal tract has resulted. 

To the writer it seems that this, if nothing more, 
should show conclusively that mankind can never 
thrive as a species on concentrated foods, for the 
reason that concentrated foods would relieve the 
system of certain work that it is supposed to do. 
This relief of function would be a disuse, and this 
disuse would in time, although it might require 
many generations, be productive of such a degener- 
ative change of structure as might jeopardize the 
existence of mankind. 

In the transmission to offspring of those charac- 
teristics that have been developed and increased by 
use, it is considered by some that those which are 
unfavorable to the individual are more readily trans- 
mitted than those which are favorable. An unfavor- 
able characteristic thus once established renders a 
predisposition to various other troubles. 

With this predisposition, however, there is not 
the tendency for the pathological modification to be 
transmitted to the offspring in the same degree to 
which it is present in the parent, for the reason that 
there is ever present that tendency for a more per- 
fect adaptation to environment, and also that with 
the pathological variation, as a rule, only one of the 
parents is affected. 

In the case of disease, when it is acquired, it may 
exist temporarily or it may become permanent in 
the individual. The longer the duration of the dis- 



1 82 ENVIRONMENT. 

ease and the more severe it is, and the more vital 
the parts involved, the greater becomes the proba- 
biUty of its producing permanent and hereditary 
effects ; and, conversely, the shorter the duration of 
the disease, the less its intensity, and the less vital 
the structures involved, the probabilities of its trans- 
mission become correspondingly diminished. 

The susceptibility which is frequently shown in 
certain individuals to certain diseases is also in some 
instances shown in races. Thus, in negroes there is 
a decided predisposition to lethargy. They also 
show a certain immunity to yellow fever, although 
not an absolute one. 



INDEX. 



Abo, 79. 

Abyssinians, 135. 
Afars, 133. 
Ainos, loi. 
Akkas, 68. 
Albanians, 141. 
Aliculufs, 126. 
Aleutians, loi. 
Algonkins, 113. 
Andamanese, 69, 150. 
Angles, 139. 
Anthropoidea, 34. 
Aonik, 126. 
Apayos, 149. 
Arabs, 134. 
Arawaks, 124. 
Archaean, 44. 
Armenians, 135. 
Arthropoda, 21. 
Aryans, 136. 
Assiniboins, 115. 
Assyrians, 135. 
Aurignac, Cave of, 47. 
Australians, 154. 
Avars, 143. 
Aztecs, 118. 

Babylonians, 136. 
Baktrians, 141. 
Ba-Frot, 81. 
Ba-Lolo, 8r. 
Ba-Ngala, 81. 
Bambaru, "j'j, 
Baniuns, "](>, 
Bantuas, ^(y, 78. 
Barabras, 78. 
Barombi, 79. 
Barotse, 79. 
Basa, 79. 
Bashirmi, 78. 
Baskirs, 98. 
Basques, 136. 



(183) 



Batwa, 63. 
Bayon, 79. 
Bechuana, 79. 
Bedjas, 133. 
Berbers, 130. 
Biology, 17. 
Bisayas, 136. 
Blackfeet, 114. 
Black race, (y^. 
Bogobos, 149. 
Bolo, 78. 
Botany, 17. 
Botocudos, 124. 
Bu-Banghi, 81. 
Bulgarians, 140. 
Bushmen, 68. 

Caddoes, 116. 
Cahitas, 118. 
Calaveras skull, 109. 
Cambrian, 44. 
Caribs, 124, 
Carnivora, Z'^, 
Carboniferous, 44. 
Catarrhine, 35. 
Caucasic peoples, 142. 
Cayugas, 114. 
Cell, 15. 
Cetacea, 31. 
Cheiroptera, 33. 
Cherokees, 115. 
Chinese, 86. 
Chipeways, 114. 
Choctaws, 115. 
Chonek, 126. 
Chukchis, 100. 
Coelenterata, 19. 
Comanches, 118. 
Congolese, 81. 
Coras, 118. 
Coroades, 124. 
Crans, 124. 



1 84 



INDEX. 



Creeks, 115. 
Crees, 113. 
Cretaceous, 46. 
Crows, 115. 
Czechs, 140. 

Daakals, 133. 
Dakotas, 114. 
Danes, 139. 
Darwinian theory, 38. 
Devonian, 44. 
Dryopithecus fontani, 49. 

Echinodermata, 20. 
Edentata, 31. 
Egyptians, 131. 
Environment, 175. 
Eocene, 46. 
Eskimos, iii. 
Esthonians, 98. 
Evolution, z"]. 

Facial angle, (^2, 
Fijians, 152. 
Finns, 97. 
Fire, 166. 
Flemings, 140. 
Food, 164. 
Franks, 139. 
Fuegians, 126. 

Galgai, 143. 

Gallas, 133. 

Germans, 140, 

Ges, 124. 

Giliaks, loi. 

Goths, 139. 

Great Ice Age, 46, 105. 

Greeks, 139. 

Guanches, 130. 

Hamites, 130. 
Hominidse, 36. 
Hottentots, 68. 
Hovas, 145. 
Huns, 140. 
Hyracoidea, 32. 

Icelanders, 140. 
Igorrotes, 136. 
lUyrians, 141. 
Ilocanes, 136. 



Inaken, 126. 
Incas, 124. 
Innuits, 112. 
Inorganic matter, 15. 
Insectivora, 33. 
Insular peoples, 133. 
Irish, 139. 
Iroquois, 114. 
Ischorians, 98. 

Jallouke, ']'], 
Japanese, 102. 
Jews. 136. 
Jurassic, 45. 

Kachintz, 98. 
Kaffirs, 80. 
Kamschatkans, 100. 
Kamucks, 94. 
Kansas, 114. 
Karabulaks, 143. 
Karakalpaks, 97. 
Kassouke, "^T, 
Kera, 116. 
Kirghiz, 97. 
Kishi, 143. 
Kitchenmiddens, 53. 
Kumuks, 97. 
Kuri, 78. 
Kyrids, 98. 

Language, 168. 
Lapps, 98. 
Latins, 139. 
Lemuria, 50. 
Lenapes, 114. 
Lesghians, 143. 
Letts, 141. 
Liberia, "]"], 
Libyians, 130. 
Livonians, 98. 
Lombards, 139. 

MalaHs, 124. 
Malays, 144. 
Mammalia, 26. 
Mandingoes, "j^, 
Manx, 139. 
Maoris, 148. 
Marquesans, 148. 
Marsupialia, 31. 



INDEX. 



185 



Massi, 133. 
Matter, 13. 
Maxillary angle, 62. 
Mayas, 120. 
Melanesians, 152. 
Metscheriaks, 98. 
Mic Macs, 113. 
Miocene, 46. 
Mistri, 78. 
Mixtecs, 120. 
Mohawks, 114. 
Mollusca, 20. 
Mombuttu, 78. 
Mongu, 78. 
Monogenists, 65. 
Monotremata, 30. 
Moors, 130. 
Moquoi, 118. 
Morphology, 17. 
Mound Builders, 117. 
Muskhogeans, 115. 

Nahuas, 118. 
Namollos, 100. 
Naulette jaw, 56. 
Neanderthal skull, 55. 
Nebular hypothesis, 42. 
Negrillos, 68. 
Negroes, 68. 
Negroids, 68, 
Negro slavery, 83. 
Nogaians, 96. 
Norsemen, 139. 
Norwegians, 140, 
Nubas, 78. 
Numidians, 130. 
Nutrition, 17. 
Nyamezi, 81. 

Omahas, 115. 
Onas, 126. 
Oneidas, 114. 
Onondagons, 114. 
Organic matter, 15. 
Orthognathism, 62. 
Osages, 114. 
Osmanles, 95. 
Ossetes, 143. 
Ostiaks, 97. 
Otomis, 120. 

Pampangos, 149. 

4 



Papuans, 151. 
Patagonians, 126. 
Pawnees, 116. 
Permian, 44. 
Persians, 141. 
Physiology, 17. 
Pigmies, 68. 

Pithecanthropus erectus, 57. 
Platyrhinae, 34. 
PHocene, 46. 
Poles, 140. 
Polynesians, 147. 
Polygenists, 65. 
Polystomata, 19. 
Pomotonans, 148. 
Poncas, 115. 
Post-pliocene, 46. 
Primates, 33. 
Primeval, 43. 
Proboscidea, 32. 
Prognathism, 61. 
Prosimise, 34. 
Protozoa, 19. 
Pueblos, 116. 
Puris, 124. 

Qquichuas, 124. 
Quaines, 98. 
Quapaws, 114. 

Red race, 103. 
Reggas, 81. 

Regnum protisticum, 17. 
Relation, 17. 
Repair, 18. 
Reproduction, 17. 
Rifians, 130. 
Rodentia, 33. 
Romans, 139. 
Rua, 81. 
Russians, 140. 
Ruthenians, 140. 

Sagais, 98. 
St. Prest, 54. 
Samals, 149. 
Samnites, 139. 
Sansandig, 77. 
Saxons, 139. 
Scotch, 139. 
Seminoles, 115. 
Senecas, 114. 



1 86 



INDEX. 



Serers, ^t. 
Shoshonees, ii8. 
Silurian, 44. 
Sioux, 114. 
Sirenia, 31. 
Skull, 60. 
Slavs, 140. 
Somalis, 133. 
Soninke, "]*], 
Sorbs, 140. 
Soudanese, 76. 
Special creation, 37. 
Spy remains, 56. 
Swedes, 140. 
Syrians, 135. 

Tagalas, 149. 
Tahitians, 148. 
Tasmanians, 157. 
Tarahumaras, 118. 
Tartars, 95. 
Tehua, 116. 
Teleouts, 98. 
Telpehuanas, 118. 
Teptiars, 98. 
Thibetans, 92. 
Timbuctoo, "j^j. 
Tingianes, 149. 
Toltecs, 119. 
Tongas, 148. 
Totonacos, 122. 
Trenton gravels, 107. 
Triassic, 44. 
Tulpis, 124. 
Tunguses, 93. 
Turcomans, 96. 
Turks, 95. 
Tuscaroras, 115. 
Tushi, 143. 



Tzoneca, 126. 

Uighurs, 97. 
Umbrians, 139. 
Ungulata, 32. 
Utes, 118. 
Uzbeks, 97. 

Vandals, 139. 
Vei, ^T, 
Vermes, 20, 
Vertebrata, 21. 
Vmes, 98. 
Vogouals, 97. 

Wa-Wuma, 81. 
Waste, 18. 
Welsh, 139, 
Wends, 140. 
White race, 128. 
Winnebagoes, 115. 
Wochua, 69. 
Wolofs, ^6, 
Writing, 171. 

Yaco, 78. 
Yahgans, 126. 
Yakuts, 95. 
Yapova, 146, 
Yedina, 78. 
Yellow race, 85. 
Yumas, 116. 

Zandah, 78. 
Zapotecs, 120. 
Zoology, 17. 
Zulus, 79. 
Zuni, 116* 



JAN 23 1905 



gv^y 



.!r.!,?,R'^RY OF CONGRESS 



029 714 045 



